Space ShuttleDiscovery lifts off at the start of the STS-120 mission.FunctionCrewed orbital launch and reentryManufacturerUnited Space AllianceThiokol/Alliant Techsystems (SRBs)Lockheed Martin/Martin Marietta (ET)Boeing/Rockwell (orbiter)Country of originUnited StatesProject costUS$211 billion (2012)Cost per launchUS$450 million (2011)[1]SizeHeight56 m (184 ft) [2] (stacked vehicle height)Diameter8.7 m (29 ft) (external tank diameter)Mass2,030,000 kg (4,480,000 lb)Stages1½[3]: 126, 140 Capacity Payload to LEOAltitude204 km (127 mi)Mass27,500 kg (60,600 lb)Payload to ISSAltitude407 km (253 mi)Mass16,050 kg (35,380 lb)Payload to GTOMass4,940 kg (10,890 lb) with Inertial Upper Stage[4]Payload to GEOMass2,270 kg (5,000 lb) with Inertial Upper Stage[4]Payload to Earth, returnedMass14,400 kg (31,700 lb)[5] Launch historyStatusRetiredLaunch sitesKennedy, LC-39A & LC‑39BVandenberg, SLC-6 (unused)Total launches135Success(es)133[a]Failures2Challenger (launch failure, 7 fatalities)Columbia (re-entry failure, 7 fatalities)First flightApril 12, 1981 (STS-1)Last flightJuly 21, 2011 (STS-135) Boosters – Solid Rocket BoostersNo. boosters2Maximum thrust13 MN (3,000,000 lbf)Total thrust27 MN (6,000,000 lbf)Specific impulse242 s (2.37 km/s)[6]Burn time124 secondsPropellantPBAN—APCPFirst stage – Orbiter + external tankPowered by3 × RS-25 engines on OrbiterMaximum thrust1,750 kN (390,000 lbf) at sea level[7]Specific impulse455 s (4.46 km/s)Burn time480 secondsPropellantLH2 / LOX in external tank Carries passengers or cargoTracking and data relay satellitesSpacelabHubble Space TelescopeGalileoMagellanUlyssesCompton Gamma Ray ObservatoryMir Docking ModuleChandra X-ray ObservatoryISS components[edit on Wikidata] Part of a series onSpaceflight History History of spaceflight Space Race Timeline of spaceflight Space probes Lunar missions Mars missions Applications Communications Earth observation Exploration Espionage Military Nigation Colonization Habitation Exploration Telescopes Tourism Spacecraft Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Cargo spacecraft Crewed spacecraft Apollo Lunar Module Space capsules Space Shuttle Space stations Spaceplanes Vostok Space launch Spaceport Launch pad Expendable and reusable launch vehicles Escape velocity Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceflight types Sub-orbital Orbital Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic List of space organizations Space agencies Space forces Companies Spaceflight portalvte
The Space Shuttle is a retired, partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated from 1981 to 2011 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was the Space Transportation System (STS), taken from the 1969 plan led by U.S. vice president Spiro Agnew for a system of reusable spacecraft where it was the only item funded for development.[8]: 163–166 [9][10]
The first (STS-1) of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights (STS-5) beginning in 1982. Five complete Space Shuttle orbiter vehicles were built and flown on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. They launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), conducted science experiments in orbit, participated in the Shuttle-Mir program with Russia, and participated in the construction and servicing of the International Space Station (ISS). The Space Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1,323 days.[11]
Space Shuttle components include the Orbiter Vehicle (OV) with three clustered Rocketdyne RS-25 main engines, a pair of recoverable solid rocket boosters (SRBs), and the expendable external tank (ET) containing liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Space Shuttle was launched vertically, like a conventional rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the orbiter's three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, while the main engines continued to operate, and the ET was jettisoned after main engine cutoff and just before orbit insertion, which used the orbiter's two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines. At the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to deorbit and reenter the atmosphere. The orbiter was protected during reentry by its thermal protection system tiles, and it glided as a spaceplane to a runway landing, usually to the Shuttle Landing Facility at KSC, Florida, or to Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base, California. If the landing occurred at Edwards, the orbiter was flown back to the KSC atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), a specially modified Boeing 747 designed to carry the shuttle above it.
The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 and used in Approach and Landing Tests (ALT), but had no orbital capability. Four fully operational orbiters were initially built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in mission accidents: Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of 14 astronauts killed. A fifth operational (and sixth in total) orbiter, Endeour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger. The three surviving operational vehicles were retired from service following Atlantis's final flight on July 21, 2011. The U.S. relied on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft to transport astronauts to the ISS from the last Shuttle flight until the launch of the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission in May 2020.[12]
Design and development[edit] Historical background[edit]In the late 1930s, the German government launched the "Amerikabomber" (English: America bomber) project, and Eugen Sänger's idea, together with mathematician Irene Bredt, was a winged rocket called the Silbervogel (German for "silver bird").[13] During the 1950s, the United States Air Force proposed using a reusable piloted glider to perform military operations such as reconnaissance, satellite attack, and air-to-ground weapons employment. In the late 1950s, the Air Force began developing the partially reusable X-20 Dyna-Soar. The Air Force collaborated with NASA on the Dyna-Soar and began training six pilots in June 1961. The rising costs of development and the prioritization of Project Gemini led to the cancellation of the Dyna-Soar program in December 1963. In addition to the Dyna-Soar, the Air Force had conducted a study in 1957 to test the feasibility of reusable boosters. This became the basis for the aerospaceplane, a fully reusable spacecraft that was never developed beyond the initial design phase in 1962–1963.[8]: 162–163
Beginning in the early 1950s, NASA and the Air Force collaborated on developing lifting bodies to test aircraft that primarily generated lift from their fuselages instead of wings, and tested the NASA M2-F1, Northrop M2-F2, Northrop M2-F3, Northrop HL-10, Martin Marietta X-24A, and the Martin Marietta X-24B. The program tested aerodynamic characteristics that would later be incorporated in design of the Space Shuttle, including unpowered landing from a high altitude and speed.[14]: 142 [15]: 16–18
Design process[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle design processOn September 24, 1966, as the Apollo space program neared its design completion, NASA and the Air Force released a joint study concluding that a new vehicle was required to satisfy their respective future demands and that a partially reusable system would be the most cost-effective solution.[8]: 164 The head of the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, George Mueller, announced the plan for a reusable shuttle on August 10, 1968. NASA issued a request for proposal (RFP) for designs of the Integral Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) on October 30, 1968.[16] Rather than award a contract based upon initial proposals, NASA announced a phased approach for the Space Shuttle contracting and development; Phase A was a request for studies completed by competing aerospace companies, Phase B was a competition between two contractors for a specific contract, Phase C involved designing the details of the spacecraft components, and Phase D was the production of the spacecraft.[17][15]: 19–22
In December 1968, NASA created the Space Shuttle Task Group to determine the optimal design for a reusable spacecraft, and issued study contracts to General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and North American Rockwell. In July 1969, the Space Shuttle Task Group issued a report that determined the Shuttle would support short-duration crewed missions and space station, as well as the capabilities to launch, service, and retrieve satellites. The report also created three classes of a future reusable shuttle: Class I would he a reusable orbiter mounted on expendable boosters, Class II would use multiple expendable rocket engines and a single propellant tank (stage-and-a-half), and Class III would he both a reusable orbiter and a reusable booster. In September 1969, the Space Task Group, under the leadership of U.S. vice president Spiro Agnew, issued a report calling for the development of a space shuttle to bring people and cargo to low Earth orbit (LEO), as well as a space tug for transfers between orbits and the Moon, and a reusable nuclear upper stage for deep space trel.[8]: 163–166 [9]
After the release of the Space Shuttle Task Group report, many aerospace engineers fored the Class III, fully reusable design because of perceived sings in hardware costs. Max Faget, a NASA engineer who had worked to design the Mercury capsule, patented a design for a two-stage fully recoverable system with a straight-winged orbiter mounted on a larger straight-winged booster.[18][19] The Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory argued that a straight-wing design would not be able to withstand the high thermal and aerodynamic stresses during reentry, and would not provide the required cross-range capability. Additionally, the Air Force required a larger payload capacity than Faget's design allowed. In January 1971, NASA and Air Force leadership decided that a reusable delta-wing orbiter mounted on an expendable propellant tank would be the optimal design for the Space Shuttle.[8]: 166
After they established the need for a reusable, hey-lift spacecraft, NASA and the Air Force determined the design requirements of their respective services. The Air Force expected to use the Space Shuttle to launch large satellites, and required it to be capable of lifting 29,000 kg (65,000 lb) to an eastward LEO or 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) into a polar orbit. The satellite designs also required that the Space Shuttle he a 4.6 by 18 m (15 by 60 ft) payload bay. NASA evaluated the F-1 and J-2 engines from the Saturn rockets, and determined that they were insufficient for the requirements of the Space Shuttle; in July 1971, it issued a contract to Rocketdyne to begin development on the RS-25 engine.[8]: 165–170
NASA reviewed 29 potential designs for the Space Shuttle and determined that a design with two side boosters should be used, and the boosters should be reusable to reduce costs.[8]: 167 NASA and the Air Force elected to use solid-propellant boosters because of the lower costs and the ease of refurbishing them for reuse after they landed in the ocean. In January 1972, President Richard Nixon approved the Shuttle, and NASA decided on its final design in March. The development of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) remained the responsibility of Rocketdyne, and the contract was issued in July 1971, and updated SSME specifications were submitted to Rocketdyne that April.[20] The following August, NASA awarded the contract to build the orbiter to North American Rockwell, which had by then constructed a full-scale mock-up, later named Inspiration.[21][22] In August 1973, NASA awarded the external tank contract to Martin Marietta, and in November the solid-rocket booster contract to Morton Thiokol.[8]: 170–173
Development[edit] Columbia undergoing installation of its ceramic tilesOn June 4, 1974, Rockwell began construction on the first orbiter, OV-101, dubbed Constitution, later to be renamed Enterprise. Enterprise was designed as a test vehicle, and did not include engines or heat shielding. Construction was completed on September 17, 1976, and Enterprise was moved to the Edwards Air Force Base to begin testing.[8]: 173 [23] Rockwell constructed the Main Propulsion Test Article (MPTA)-098, which was a structural truss mounted to the ET with three RS-25 engines attached. It was tested at the National Space Technology Laboratory (NSTL) to ensure that the engines could safely run through the launch profile.[24]: II-163 Rockwell conducted mechanical and thermal stress tests on Structural Test Article (STA)-099 to determine the effects of aerodynamic and thermal stresses during launch and reentry.[24]: I-415
The beginning of the development of the RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engine was delayed for nine months while Pratt & Whitney challenged the contract that had been issued to Rocketdyne. The first engine was completed in March 1975, after issues with developing the first throttleable, reusable engine. During engine testing, the RS-25 experienced multiple nozzle failures, as well as broken turbine blades. Despite the problems during testing, NASA ordered the nine RS-25 engines needed for its three orbiters under construction in May 1978.[8]: 174–175
NASA experienced significant delays in the development of the Space Shuttle's thermal protection system. Previous NASA spacecraft had used ablative heat shields, but those could not be reused. NASA chose to use ceramic tiles for thermal protection, as the shuttle could then be constructed of lightweight aluminum, and the tiles could be individually replaced as needed. Construction began on Columbia on March 27, 1975, and it was delivered to the KSC on March 25, 1979.[8]: 175–177 At the time of its arrival at the KSC, Columbia still had 6,000 of its 30,000 tiles remaining to be installed. However, many of the tiles that had been originally installed had to be replaced, requiring two years of installation before Columbia could fly.[15]: 46–48
On January 5, 1979, NASA commissioned a second orbiter. Later that month, Rockwell began converting STA-099 to OV-099, later named Challenger. On January 29, 1979, NASA ordered two additional orbiters, OV-103 and OV-104, which were named Discovery and Atlantis. Construction of OV-105, later named Endeour, began in February 1982, but NASA decided to limit the Space Shuttle fleet to four orbiters in 1983. After the loss of Challenger, NASA resumed production of Endeour in September 1987.[15]: 52–53
Testing[edit] Enterprise during the Approach and Landing Tests Columbia launching on STS-1[b]After it arrived at Edwards AFB, Enterprise underwent flight testing with the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a Boeing 747 that had been modified to carry the orbiter. In February 1977, Enterprise began the Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) and underwent captive flights, where it remained attached to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft for the duration of the flight. On August 12, 1977, Enterprise conducted its first glide test, where it detached from the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and landed at Edwards AFB.[8]: 173–174 After four additional flights, Enterprise was moved to the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) on March 13, 1978. Enterprise underwent shake tests in the Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Test, where it was attached to an external tank and solid rocket boosters, and underwent vibrations to simulate the stresses of launch. In April 1979, Enterprise was taken to the KSC, where it was attached to an external tank and solid rocket boosters, and moved to LC-39. Once installed at the launch pad, the Space Shuttle was used to verify the proper positioning of the launch complex hardware. Enterprise was taken back to California in August 1979, and later served in the development of the SLC-6 at Vandenberg AFB in 1984.[15]: 40–41
On November 24, 1980, Columbia was mated with its external tank and solid-rocket boosters, and was moved to LC-39 on December 29.[24]: III-22 The first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1, would be the first time NASA performed a crewed first-flight of a spacecraft.[24]: III-24 On April 12, 1981, the Space Shuttle launched for the first time, and was piloted by John Young and Robert Crippen. During the two-day mission, Young and Crippen tested equipment on board the shuttle, and found several of the ceramic tiles had fallen off the top side of the Columbia.[25]: 277–278 NASA coordinated with the Air Force to use satellites to image the underside of Columbia, and determined there was no damage.[25]: 335–337 Columbia reentered the atmosphere and landed at Edwards AFB on April 14.[24]: III-24
NASA conducted three additional test flights with Columbia in 1981 and 1982. On July 4, 1982, STS-4, flown by Ken Mattingly and Henry Hartsfield, landed on a concrete runway at Edwards AFB. President Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy met the crew, and delivered a speech. After STS-4, NASA declared its Space Transportation System (STS) operational.[8]: 178–179 [26]
Description[edit]The Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for reuse. Each Space Shuttle orbiter was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended.[27]: 11 At launch, it consisted of the orbiter, which contained the crew and payload, the external tank (ET), and the two solid rocket boosters (SRBs).[3]: 363
Responsibility for the Space Shuttle components was spread among multiple NASA field centers. The KSC was responsible for launch, landing, and turnaround operations for equatorial orbits (the only orbit profile actually used in the program). The U.S. Air Force at the Vandenberg Air Force Base was responsible for launch, landing, and turnaround operations for polar orbits (though this was never used). The Johnson Space Center (JSC) served as the central point for all Shuttle operations and the MSFC was responsible for the main engines, external tank, and solid rocket boosters. The John C. Stennis Space Center handled main engine testing, and the Goddard Space Flight Center managed the global tracking network.[28]
Orbiter[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle orbiter Shuttle launch profiles. From left: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and EndeourThe orbiter had design elements and capabilities of both a rocket and an aircraft to allow it to launch vertically and then land as a glider.[3]: 365 Its three-part fuselage provided support for the crew compartment, cargo bay, flight surfaces, and engines. The rear of the orbiter contained the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), which provided thrust during launch, as well as the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS), which allowed the orbiter to achieve, alter, and exit its orbit once in space. Its double-delta wings were 18 m (60 ft) long, and were swept 81° at the inner leading edge and 45° at the outer leading edge. Each wing had an inboard and outboard elevon to provide flight control during reentry, along with a flap located between the wings, below the engines to control pitch. The orbiter's vertical stabilizer was swept backwards at 45° and contained a rudder that could split to act as a speed brake.[3]: 382–389 The vertical stabilizer also contained a two-part drag parachute system to slow the orbiter after landing. The orbiter used retractable landing gear with a nose landing gear and two main landing gear, each containing two tires. The main landing gear contained two brake assemblies each, and the nose landing gear contained an electro-hydraulic steering mechanism.[3]: 408–411
Crew[edit]The Space Shuttle crew varied per mission. They underwent rigorous testing and training to meet the qualification requirements for their roles. The crew was divided into three categories: Pilots, Mission Specialists, and Payload Specialists. Pilots were further divided into two roles: the Space Shuttle Commander, who would seat in the forward left seat and the Space Shuttle Pilot who would seat in the forward right seat.[29] The test flights, STS-1 through STS-4 only had two members each, the commander and pilot. The commander and the pilot were both qualified to fly and land the orbiter. The on-orbit operations, such as experiments, payload deployment, and EVAs, were conducted primarily by the mission specialists who were specifically trained for their intended missions and systems. Early in the Space Shuttle program, NASA flew with payload specialists, who were typically systems specialists who worked for the company paying for the payload's deployment or operations. The final payload specialist, Gregory B. Jarvis, flew on STS-51-L, and future non-pilots were designated as mission specialists. An astronaut flew as a crewed spaceflight engineer on both STS-51-C and STS-51-J to serve as a military representative for a National Reconnaissance Office payload. A Space Shuttle crew typically had seven astronauts, with STS-61-A flying with eight.[24]: III-21
Crew compartment[edit]The crew compartment comprised three decks and was the pressurized, habitable area on all Space Shuttle missions. The flight deck consisted of two seats for the commander and pilot, as well as an additional two to four seats for crew members. The mid-deck was located below the flight deck and was where the galley and crew bunks were set up, as well as three or four crew member seats. The mid-deck contained the airlock, which could support two astronauts on an extrehicular activity (EVA), as well as access to pressurized research modules. An equipment bay was below the mid-deck, which stored environmental control and waste management systems.[15]: 60–62 [3]: 365–369
On the first four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modified U.S. Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fifth flight, STS-5, until the loss of Challenger, the crew wore one-piece light blue nomex flight suits and partial-pressure helmets. After the Challenger disaster, the crew members wore the Launch Entry Suit (LES), a partial-pressure version of the high-altitude pressure suits with a helmet. In 1994, the LES was replaced by the full-pressure Advanced Crew Escape Suit (ACES), which improved the safety of the astronauts in an emergency situation. Columbia originally had modified SR-71 zero-zero ejection seats installed for the ALT and first four missions, but these were disabled after STS-4 and removed after STS-9.[3]: 370–371
Atlantis was the first Shuttle to fly with a glass cockpit, on STS-101.The flight deck was the top level of the crew compartment and contained the flight controls for the orbiter. The commander sat in the front left seat, and the pilot sat in the front right seat, with two to four additional seats set up for additional crew members. The instrument panels contained over 2,100 displays and controls, and the commander and pilot were both equipped with a heads-up display (HUD) and a Rotational Hand Controller (RHC) to gimbal the engines during powered flight and fly the orbiter during unpowered flight. Both seats also had rudder controls, to allow rudder movement in flight and nose-wheel steering on the ground.[3]: 369–372 The orbiter vehicles were originally installed with the Multifunction CRT Display System (MCDS) to display and control flight information. The MCDS displayed the flight information at the commander and pilot seats, as well as at the aft seating location, and also controlled the data on the HUD. In 1998, Atlantis was upgraded with the Multifunction Electronic Display System (MEDS), which was a glass cockpit upgrade to the flight instruments that replaced the eight MCDS display units with 11 multifunction colored digital screens. MEDS was flown for the first time in May 2000 on STS-101, and the other orbiter vehicles were upgraded to it. The aft section of the flight deck contained windows looking into the payload bay, as well as an RHC to control the Remote Manipulator System during cargo operations. Additionally, the aft flight deck had monitors for a closed-circuit television to view the cargo bay.[3]: 372–376
The mid-deck contained the crew equipment storage, sleeping area, galley, medical equipment, and hygiene stations for the crew. The crew used modular lockers to store equipment that could be scaled depending on their needs, as well as permanently installed floor compartments. The mid-deck contained a port-side hatch that the crew used for entry and exit while on Earth.[24]: II–26–33
Airlock[edit]The airlock is a structure installed to allow movement between two spaces with different gas components, conditions, or pressures. Continuing on the mid-deck structure, each orbiter was originally installed with an internal airlock in the mid-deck. The internal airlock was installed as an external airlock in the payload bay on Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeour to improve docking with Mir and the ISS, along with the Orbiter Docking System.[24]: II–26–33 The airlock module can be fitted in the mid-bay, or connected to it but in the payload bay.[15]: 81 With an internal cylindrical volume of 1.60 metres (5 feet 3 inches) diameter and 2.11 metres (6 feet 11 inches) in length, it can hold two suited astronauts. It has two D-shaped hatchways 1.02 m (40 in) long (diameter), and 0.91 m (36 in) wide.[15]: 82
Flight systems[edit]The orbiter was equipped with an ionics system to provide information and control during atmospheric flight. Its ionics suite contained three microwe scanning beam landing systems, three gyroscopes, three TACANs, three accelerometers, two radar altimeters, two barometric altimeters, three attitude indicators, two Mach indicators, and two Mode C transponders. During reentry, the crew deployed two air data probes once they were treling slower than Mach 5. The orbiter had three inertial measuring units (IMU) that it used for guidance and nigation during all phases of flight. The orbiter contains two star trackers to align the IMUs while in orbit. The star trackers are deployed while in orbit, and can automatically or manually align on a star. In 1991, NASA began upgrading the inertial measurement units with an inertial nigation system (INS), which provided more accurate location information. In 1993, NASA flew a GPS receiver for the first time aboard STS-51. In 1997, Honeywell began developing an integrated GPS/INS to replace the IMU, INS, and TACAN systems, which first flew on STS-118 in August 2007.[3]: 402–403
While in orbit, the crew primarily communicated using one of four S band radios, which provided both voice and data communications. Two of the S band radios were phase modulation transceivers, and could transmit and receive information. The other two S band radios were frequency modulation transmitters and were used to transmit data to NASA. As S band radios can operate only within their line of sight, NASA used the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System and the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network ground stations to communicate with the orbiter throughout its orbit. Additionally, the orbiter deployed a high-bandwidth Ku band radio out of the cargo bay, which could also be utilized as a rendezvous radar. The orbiter was also equipped with two UHF radios for communications with air traffic control and astronauts conducting EVA.[3]: 403–404
AP-101S (left) and AP-101B general purpose computersThe Space Shuttle's fly-by-wire control system was entirely reliant on its main computer, the Data Processing System (DPS). The DPS controlled the flight controls and thrusters on the orbiter, as well as the ET and SRBs during launch. The DPS consisted of five general-purpose computers (GPC), two magnetic tape mass memory units (MMUs), and the associated sensors to monitor the Space Shuttle components.[3]: 232–233 The original GPC used was the IBM AP-101B, which used a separate central processing unit (CPU) and input/output processor (IOP), and non-volatile solid-state memory. From 1991 to 1993, the orbiter vehicles were upgraded to the AP-101S, which improved the memory and processing capabilities, and reduced the volume and weight of the computers by combining the CPU and IOP into a single unit. Four of the GPCs were loaded with the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS), which was Space Shuttle-specific software that provided control through all phases of flight. During ascent, maneuvering, reentry, and landing, the four PASS GPCs functioned identically to produce quadruple redundancy and would error check their results. In case of a software error that would cause erroneous reports from the four PASS GPCs, a fifth GPC ran the Backup Flight System, which used a different program and could control the Space Shuttle through ascent, orbit, and reentry, but could not support an entire mission. The five GPCs were separated in three separate bays within the mid-deck to provide redundancy in the event of a cooling fan failure. After achieving orbit, the crew would switch some of the GPCs functions from guidance, nigation, and control (GNC) to systems management (SM) and payload (PL) to support the operational mission.[3]: 405–408 The Space Shuttle was not launched if its flight would run from December to January, as its flight software would he required the orbiter vehicle's computers to be reset at the year change. In 2007, NASA engineers devised a solution so Space Shuttle flights could cross the year-end boundary.[30]
Space Shuttle missions typically brought a portable general support computer (PGSC) that could integrate with the orbiter vehicle's computers and communication suite, as well as monitor scientific and payload data. Early missions brought the Grid Compass, one of the first laptop computers, as the PGSC, but later missions brought Apple and Intel laptops.[3]: 408 [31]
Payload bay[edit] Story Musgre attached to the RMS servicing the Hubble Space Telescope during STS-61 Atlantis in orbit in 2010. Image shows the payload bay and the extended Canadarm.The payload bay comprised most of the orbiter vehicle's fuselage, and provided the cargo-carrying space for the Space Shuttle's payloads. It was 18 m (60 ft) long and 4.6 m (15 ft) wide, and could accommodate cylindrical payloads up to 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter. Two payload bay doors hinged on either side of the bay, and provided a relatively airtight seal to protect payloads from heating during launch and reentry. Payloads were secured in the payload bay to the attachment points on the longerons. The payload bay doors served an additional function as radiators for the orbiter vehicle's heat, and were opened upon reaching orbit for heat rejection.[15]: 62–64
The orbiter could be used in conjunction with a variety of add-on components depending on the mission. This included orbital laboratories,[24]: II-304, 319 boosters for launching payloads farther into space,[24]: II-326 the Remote Manipulator System (RMS),[24]: II-40 and optionally the EDO pallet to extend the mission duration.[24]: II-86 To limit the fuel consumption while the orbiter was docked at the ISS, the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) was developed to convert and transfer station power to the orbiter.[24]: II-87–88 The SSPTS was first used on STS-118, and was installed on Discovery and Endeour.[24]: III-366–368
Remote Manipulator System[edit] Main article: CanadarmThe Remote Manipulator System (RMS), also known as Canadarm, was a mechanical arm attached to the cargo bay. It could be used to grasp and manipulate payloads, as well as serve as a mobile platform for astronauts conducting an EVA. The RMS was built by the Canadian company Spar Aerospace and was controlled by an astronaut inside the orbiter's flight deck using their windows and closed-circuit television. The RMS allowed for six degrees of freedom and had six joints located at three points along the arm. The original RMS could deploy or retrieve payloads up to 29,000 kg (65,000 lb), which was later improved to 270,000 kg (586,000 lb).[3]: 384–385
Spacelab[edit] Main article: Spacelab Spacelab in orbit on STS-9The Spacelab module was a European-funded pressurized laboratory that was carried within the payload bay and allowed for scientific research while in orbit. The Spacelab module contained two 2.7 m (9 ft) segments that were mounted in the aft end of the payload bay to maintain the center of grity during flight. Astronauts entered the Spacelab module through a 2.7 or 5.8 m (8.72 or 18.88 ft) tunnel that connected to the airlock. The Spacelab equipment was primarily stored in pallets, which provided storage for both experiments as well as computer and power equipment.[3]: 434–435 Spacelab hardware was flown on 28 missions through 1999 and studied subjects including astronomy, microgrity, radar, and life sciences. Spacelab hardware also supported missions such as Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing and space station resupply. The Spacelab module was tested on STS-2 and STS-3, and the first full mission was on STS-9.[32]
RS-25 engines[edit] Main article: RS-25 RS-25 engines with the two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) pods during STS-133Three RS-25 engines, also known as the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), were mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The engine nozzles could gimbal ±10.5° in pitch, and ±8.5° in yaw during ascent to change the direction of their thrust to steer the Shuttle. The titanium alloy reusable engines were independent of the orbiter vehicle and would be removed and replaced in between flights. The RS-25 is a staged-combustion cycle cryogenic engine that used liquid oxygen and hydrogen and had a higher chamber pressure than any previous liquid-fueled rocket. The original main combustion chamber operated at a maximum pressure of 226.5 bar (3,285 psi). The engine nozzle is 287 cm (113 in) tall and has an interior diameter of 229 cm (90.3 in). The nozzle is cooled by 1,080 interior lines carrying liquid hydrogen and is thermally protected by insulative and ablative material.[24]: II–177–183
The RS-25 engines had several improvements to enhance reliability and power. During the development program, Rocketdyne determined that the engine was capable of safe reliable operation at 104% of the originally specified thrust. To keep the engine thrust values consistent with previous documentation and software, NASA kept the originally specified thrust at 100%, but had the RS-25 operate at higher thrust. RS-25 upgrade versions were denoted as Block I and Block II. 109% thrust level was achieved with the Block II engines in 2001, which reduced the chamber pressure to 207.5 bars (3,010 psi), as it had a larger throat area. The normal maximum throttle was 104 percent, with 106% or 109% used for mission aborts.[15]: 106–107
Orbital Maneuvering System[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering SystemThe Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) consisted of two aft-mounted AJ10-190 engines and the associated propellant tanks. The AJ10 engines used monomethylhydrazine (MMH) oxidized by dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). The pods carried a maximum of 2,140 kg (4,718 lb) of MMH and 3,526 kg (7,773 lb) of N2O4. The OMS engines were used after main engine cut-off (MECO) for orbital insertion. Throughout the flight, they were used for orbit changes, as well as the deorbit burn prior to reentry. Each OMS engine produced 27,080 N (6,087 lbf) of thrust, and the entire system could provide 305 m/s (1,000 ft/s) of velocity change.[24]: II–80
Thermal protection system[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle thermal protection systemThe orbiter was protected from heat during reentry by the thermal protection system (TPS), a thermal soaking protective layer around the orbiter. In contrast with previous US spacecraft, which had used ablative heat shields, the reusability of the orbiter required a multi-use heat shield.[15]: 72–73 During reentry, the TPS experienced temperatures up to 1,600 °C (3,000 °F), but had to keep the orbiter vehicle's aluminum skin temperature below 180 °C (350 °F). The TPS primarily consisted of four types of tiles. The nose cone and leading edges of the wings experienced temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,300 °F), and were protected by reinforced carbon-carbon tiles (RCC). Thicker RCC tiles were developed and installed in 1998 to prevent damage from micrometeoroid and orbital debris, and were further improved after RCC damage caused in the Columbia disaster. Beginning with STS-114, the orbiter vehicles were equipped with the wing leading edge impact detection system to alert the crew to any potential damage.[24]: II–112–113 The entire underside of the orbiter vehicle, as well as the other hottest surfaces, were protected with tiles of high-temperature reusable surface insulation, made of borosilicate glass-coated silica fibers that trapped heat in air pockets and redirected it out. Areas on the upper parts of the orbiter vehicle were coated in tiles of white low-temperature reusable surface insulation with similar composition, which provided protection for temperatures below 650 °C (1,200 °F). The payload bay doors and parts of the upper wing surfaces were coated in reusable Nomex felt surface insulation or in beta cloth, as the temperature there remained below 370 °C (700 °F).[3]: 395
External tank[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle external tank The ET from STS-115 after separation from the orbiter. The scorch mark near the front end of the tank is from the SRB separation motors.The Space Shuttle external tank (ET) carried the propellant for the Space Shuttle Main Engines, and connected the orbiter vehicle with the solid rocket boosters. The ET was 47 m (153.8 ft) tall and 8.4 m (27.6 ft) in diameter, and contained separate tanks for liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. The liquid oxygen tank was housed in the nose of the ET, and was 15 m (49.3 ft) tall. The liquid hydrogen tank comprised the bulk of the ET, and was 29 m (96.7 ft) tall. The orbiter vehicle was attached to the ET at two umbilical plates, which contained five propellant and two electrical umbilicals, and forward and aft structural attachments. The exterior of the ET was covered in orange spray-on foam to allow it to survive the heat of ascent.[3]: 421–422
The ET provided propellant to the Space Shuttle Main Engines from liftoff until main engine cutoff. The ET separated from the orbiter vehicle 18 seconds after engine cutoff and could be triggered automatically or manually. At the time of separation, the orbiter vehicle retracted its umbilical plates, and the umbilical cords were sealed to prevent excess propellant from venting into the orbiter vehicle. After the bolts attached at the structural attachments were sheared, the ET separated from the orbiter vehicle. At the time of separation, gaseous oxygen was vented from the nose to cause the ET to tumble, ensuring that it would break up upon reentry. The ET was the only major component of the Space Shuttle system that was not reused, and it would trel along a ballistic trajectory into the Indian or Pacific Ocean.[3]: 422
For the first two missions, STS-1 and STS-2, the ET was covered in 270 kg (595 lb) of white fire-retardant latex paint to provide protection against damage from ultriolet radiation. Further research determined that the orange foam itself was sufficiently protected, and the ET was no longer covered in latex paint beginning on STS-3.[24]: II-210 A light-weight tank (LWT) was first flown on STS-6, which reduced tank weight by 4,700 kg (10,300 lb). The LWT's weight was reduced by removing components from the hydrogen tank and reducing the thickness of some skin panels.[3]: 422 In 1998, a super light-weight ET (SLWT) first flew on STS-91. The SLWT used the 2195 aluminum-lithium alloy, which was 40% stronger and 10% less dense than its predecessor, 2219 aluminum-lithium alloy. The SLWT weighed 3,400 kg (7,500 lb) less than the LWT, which allowed the Space Shuttle to deliver hey elements to ISS's high inclination orbit.[3]: 423–424
Solid Rocket Boosters[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Two SRBs on the mobile launcher platform prior to mating with the ET and orbiter for STS-134The Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) provided 71.4% of the Space Shuttle's thrust during liftoff and ascent, and were the largest solid-propellant motors ever flown.[6] Each SRB was 45 m (149.2 ft) tall and 3.7 m (12.2 ft) wide, weighed 68,000 kg (150,000 lb), and had a steel exterior approximately 13 mm (.5 in) thick. The SRB's subcomponents were the solid-propellant motor, nose cone, and rocket nozzle. The solid-propellant motor comprised the majority of the SRB's structure. Its casing consisted of 11 steel sections which made up its four main segments. The nose cone housed the forward separation motors and the parachute systems that were used during recovery. The rocket nozzles could gimbal up to 8° to allow for in-flight adjustments.[3]: 425–429
The rocket motors were each filled with a total 500,000 kg (1,106,640 lb) of solid rocket propellant (APCP+PBAN), and joined in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) at KSC.[3]: 425–426 In addition to providing thrust during the first stage of launch, the SRBs provided structural support for the orbiter vehicle and ET, as they were the only system that was connected to the mobile launcher platform (MLP).[3]: 427 At the time of launch, the SRBs were armed at T−5 minutes, and could only be electrically ignited once the RS-25 engines had ignited and were without issue.[3]: 428 They each provided 12,500 kN (2,800,000 lbf) of thrust, which was later improved to 13,300 kN (3,000,000 lbf) beginning on STS-8.[3]: 425 After expending their fuel, the SRBs were jettisoned approximately two minutes after launch at an altitude of approximately 46 km (150,000 ft). Following separation, they deployed drogue and main parachutes, landed in the ocean, and were recovered by the crews aboard the ships MV Freedom Star and MV Liberty Star.[3]: 430 Once they were returned to Cape Caneral, they were cleaned and disassembled. The rocket motor, igniter, and nozzle were then shipped to Thiokol to be refurbished and reused on subsequent flights.[15]: 124
The SRBs underwent several redesigns throughout the program's lifetime. STS-6 and STS-7 used SRBs 2,300 kg (5,000 lb) lighter due to walls that were 0.10 mm (.004 in) thinner, but were determined to be too thin to fly safely. Subsequent flights until STS-26 used cases that were 0.076 mm (.003 in) thinner than the standard-weight cases, which reduced 1,800 kg (4,000 lb). After the Challenger disaster as a result of an O-ring failing at low temperature, the SRBs were redesigned to provide a constant seal regardless of the ambient temperature.[3]: 425–426
Support vehicles[edit] MV Freedom Star towing a spent SRB (STS-133) to Cape Caneral Air Force StationThe Space Shuttle's operations were supported by vehicles and infrastructure that facilitated its transportation, construction, and crew access. The crawler-transporters carried the MLP and the Space Shuttle from the VAB to the launch site.[33] The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) were two modified Boeing 747s that could carry an orbiter on its back. The original SCA (N905NA) was first flown in 1975, and was used for the ALT and ferrying the orbiter from Edwards AFB to the KSC on all missions prior to 1991. A second SCA (N911NA) was acquired in 1988, and was first used to transport Endeour from the factory to the KSC. Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, N905NA was put on display at the JSC, and N911NA was put on display at the Joe Dies Heritage Airpark in Palmdale, California.[24]: I–377–391 [34] The Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV) was a modified airport jet bridge that was used to assist astronauts to egress from the orbiter after landing, where they would undergo their post-mission medical checkups.[35] The Astrovan transported astronauts from the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building to the launch pad on launch day.[36] The NASA Railroad comprised three locomotives that transported SRB segments from the Florida East Coast Railway in Titusville to the KSC.[37]
Mission profile[edit] Launch preparation[edit] See also: Launch commit criteria The crawler-transporter with Atlantis on the ramp to LC-39A for STS-117The Space Shuttle was prepared for launch primarily in the VAB at the KSC. The SRBs were assembled and attached to the external tank on the MLP. The orbiter vehicle was prepared at the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) and transferred to the VAB, where a crane was used to rotate it to the vertical orientation and mate it to the external tank.[15]: 132–133 Once the entire stack was assembled, the MLP was carried for 5.6 km (3.5 mi) to Launch Complex 39 by one of the crawler-transporters.[15]: 137 After the Space Shuttle arrived at one of the two launchpads, it would connect to the Fixed and Rotation Service Structures, which provided servicing capabilities, payload insertion, and crew transportation.[15]: 139–141 The crew was transported to the launch pad at T−3 hours and entered the orbiter vehicle, which was closed at T−2 hours.[24]: III–8 Liquid oxygen and hydrogen were loaded into the external tank via umbilicals that attached to the orbiter vehicle, which began at T−5 hours 35 minutes. At T−3 hours 45 minutes, the hydrogen fast-fill was complete, followed 15 minutes later by the oxygen tank fill. Both tanks were slowly filled up until the launch as the oxygen and hydrogen evaporated.[24]: II–186
The launch commit criteria considered precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity.[38] The Space Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could he been struck by lightning, as its exhaust plume could he triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground after launch, which occurred on Apollo 12.[39]: 239 The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an anvil cloud could not appear within a distance of 19 km (10 nmi).[40] The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition to the weather at the launch site, conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites and the SRB recovery area.[38][41]
Launch[edit] Early ignition and lift-off view of main-engines and SRB (ground-camera view)The mission crew and the Launch Control Center (LCC) personnel completed systems checks throughout the countdown. Two built-in holds at T−20 minutes and T−9 minutes provided scheduled breaks to address any issues and additional preparation.[24]: III–8 After the built-in hold at T−9 minutes, the countdown was automatically controlled by the Ground Launch Sequencer (GLS) at the LCC, which stopped the countdown if it sensed a critical problem with any of the Space Shuttle's onboard systems.[41] At T−3 minutes 45 seconds, the engines began conducting gimbal tests, which were concluded at T−2 minutes 15 seconds. The ground Launch Processing System handed off the control to the orbiter vehicle's GPCs at T−31 seconds. At T−16 seconds, the GPCs armed the SRBs, the sound suppression system (SPS) began to drench the MLP and SRB trenches with 1,100,000 L (300,000 U.S. gal) of water to protect the orbiter vehicle from damage by acoustical energy and rocket exhaust reflected from the flame trench and MLP during lift-off.[42][43] At T−10 seconds, hydrogen igniters were activated under each engine bell to quell the stagnant gas inside the cones before ignition. Failure to burn these gases could trip the onboard sensors and create the possibility of an overpressure and explosion of the vehicle during the firing phase. The hydrogen tank's prevalves were opened at T−9.5 seconds in preparation for engine start.[24]: II–186
Shuttle lift-off via on-board camera view.Beginning at T−6.6 seconds, the main engines were ignited sequentially at 120-millisecond intervals. All three RS-25 engines were required to reach 90% rated thrust by T−3 seconds, otherwise the GPCs would initiate an RSLS abort. If all three engines indicated nominal performance by T−3 seconds, they were commanded to gimbal to liftoff configuration and the command would be issued to arm the SRBs for ignition at T−0.[44] Between T−6.6 seconds and T−3 seconds, while the RS-25 engines were firing but the SRBs were still bolted to the pad, the offset thrust would cause the Space Shuttle to pitch down 650 mm (25.5 in) measured at the tip of the external tank; the 3-second delay allowed the stack to return to nearly vertical before SRB ignition. This movement was nicknamed the "twang." At T−0, the eight frangible nuts holding the SRBs to the pad were detonated, the final umbilicals were disconnected, the SSMEs were commanded to 100% throttle, and the SRBs were ignited.[45][46] By T+0.23 seconds, the SRBs built up enough thrust for liftoff to commence, and reached maximum chamber pressure by T+0.6 seconds.[47][24]: II–186 At T−0, the JSC Mission Control Center assumed control of the flight from the LCC.[24]: III–9
On-board camera-view of SRB separation.At T+4 seconds, when the Space Shuttle reached an altitude of 22 meters (73 ft), the RS-25 engines were throttled up to 104.5%. At approximately T+7 seconds, the Space Shuttle rolled to a heads-down orientation at an altitude of 110 meters (350 ft), which reduced aerodynamic stress and provided an improved communication and nigation orientation. Approximately 20–30 seconds into ascent and an altitude of 2,700 meters (9,000 ft), the RS-25 engines were throttled down to 65–72% to reduce the maximum aerodynamic forces at Max Q.[24]: III–8–9 Additionally, the shape of the SRB propellant was designed to cause thrust to decrease at the time of Max Q.[3]: 427 The GPCs could dynamically control the throttle of the RS-25 engines based upon the performance of the SRBs.[24]: II–187
On-board camera-view of external-tank separationAt approximately T+123 seconds and an altitude of 46,000 meters (150,000 ft), pyrotechnic fasteners released the SRBs, which reached an apogee of 67,000 meters (220,000 ft) before parachuting into the Atlantic Ocean. The Space Shuttle continued its ascent using only the RS-25 engines. On earlier missions, the Space Shuttle remained in the heads-down orientation to maintain communications with the tracking station in Bermuda, but later missions, beginning with STS-87, rolled to a heads-up orientation at T+6 minutes for communication with the tracking and data relay satellite constellation. The RS-25 engines were throttled at T+7 minutes 30 seconds to limit vehicle acceleration to 3 g. At 6 seconds prior to main engine cutoff (MECO), which occurred at T+8 minutes 30 seconds, the RS-25 engines were throttled down to 67%. The GPCs controlled ET separation and dumped the remaining liquid oxygen and hydrogen to prevent outgassing while in orbit. The ET continued on a ballistic trajectory and broke up during reentry, with some small pieces landing in the Indian or Pacific Ocean.[24]: III–9–10
Early missions used two firings of the OMS to achieve orbit; the first firing raised the apogee while the second circularized the orbit. Missions after STS-38 used the RS-25 engines to achieve the optimal apogee, and used the OMS engines to circularize the orbit. The orbital altitude and inclination were mission-dependent, and the Space Shuttle's orbits varied from 220 to 620 km (120 to 335 nmi).[24]: III–10
In orbit[edit] Endeour docked at ISS during the STS-134 missionThe type of mission the Space Shuttle was assigned dictated the type of orbit that it entered. The initial design of the reusable Space Shuttle envisioned an increasingly cheap launch platform to deploy commercial and government satellites. Early missions routinely ferried satellites, which determined the type of orbit that the orbiter vehicle would enter. Following the Challenger disaster, many commercial payloads were moved to expendable commercial rockets, such as the Delta II.[24]: III–108, 123 While later missions still launched commercial payloads, Space Shuttle assignments were routinely directed towards scientific payloads, such as the Hubble Space Telescope,[24]: III–148 Spacelab,[3]: 434–435 and the Galileo spacecraft.[24]: III–140 Beginning with STS-71, the orbiter vehicle conducted dockings with the Mir space station.[24]: III–224 In its final decade of operation, the Space Shuttle was used for the construction of the International Space Station.[24]: III–264 Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the Extended Duration Orbiter pallet.[24]: III–86 The 17 day 15 hour STS-80 mission was the longest Space Shuttle mission duration.[24]: III–238
Re-entry and landing[edit] Flight deck view of Discovery during STS-42 re-entryApproximately four hours prior to deorbit, the crew began preparing the orbiter vehicle for reentry by closing the payload doors, radiating excess heat, and retracting the Ku band antenna. The orbiter vehicle maneuvered to an upside-down, tail-first orientation and began a 2–4 minute OMS burn approximately 20 minutes before it reentered the atmosphere. The orbiter vehicle reoriented itself to a nose-forward position with a 40° angle-of-attack, and the forward reaction control system (RCS) jets were emptied of fuel and disabled prior to reentry. The orbiter vehicle's reentry was defined as starting at an altitude of 120 km (400,000 ft), when it was treling at approximately Mach 25. The orbiter vehicle's reentry was controlled by the GPCs, which followed a preset angle-of-attack plan to prevent unsafe heating of the TPS. During reentry, the orbiter's speed was regulated by altering the amount of drag produced, which was controlled by means of angle of attack, as well as bank angle. The latter could be used to control drag without changing the angle of attack. A series of roll reversals[c] were performed to control azimuth while banking.[48] The orbiter vehicle's aft RCS jets were disabled as its ailerons, elevators, and rudder became effective in the lower atmosphere. At an altitude of 46 km (150,000 ft), the orbiter vehicle opened its speed brake on the vertical stabilizer. At 8 minutes 44 seconds prior to landing, the crew deployed the air data probes, and began lowering the angle-of-attack to 36°.[24]: III–12 The orbiter's maximum glide ratio/lift-to-drag ratio varied considerably with speed, ranging from 1.3 at hypersonic speeds to 4.9 at subsonic speeds.[24]: II–1 The orbiter vehicle flew to one of the two Heading Alignment Cones, located 48 km (30 mi) away from each end of the runway's centerline, where it made its final turns to dissipate excess energy prior to its approach and landing. Once the orbiter vehicle was treling subsonically, the crew took over manual control of the flight.[24]: III–13
Discovery deploying its brake parachute after landing on STS-124The approach and landing phase began when the orbiter vehicle was at an altitude of 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and treling at 150 m/s (300 kn). The orbiter followed either a -20° or -18° glideslope and descended at approximately 51 m/s (167 ft/s). The speed brake was used to keep a continuous speed, and crew initiated a pre-flare maneuver to a -1.5° glideslope at an altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft). The landing gear was deployed 10 seconds prior to touchdown, when the orbiter was at an altitude of 91 m (300 ft) and treling 150 m/s (288 kn). A final flare maneuver reduced the orbiter vehicle's descent rate to 0.9 m/s (3 ft/s), with touchdown occurring at 100–150 m/s (195–295 kn), depending on the weight of the orbiter vehicle. After the landing gear touched down, the crew deployed a drag chute out of the vertical stabilizer, and began wheel braking when the orbiter was treling slower than 72 m/s (140 kn). After the orbiter's wheels stopped, the crew deactivated the flight components and prepared to exit.[24]: III–13
Landing sites[edit] See also: List of Space Shuttle landing sitesThe primary Space Shuttle landing site was the Shuttle Landing Facility at KSC, where 78 of the 133 successful landings occurred. In the event of unforable landing conditions, the Shuttle could delay its landing or land at an alternate location. The primary alternate was Edwards AFB, which was used for 54 landings.[24]: III–18–20 STS-3 landed at the White Sands Space Harbor in New Mexico and required extensive post-processing after exposure to the gypsum-rich sand, some of which was found in Columbia debris after STS-107.[24]: III–28 Landings at alternate airfields required the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft to transport the orbiter back to Cape Caneral.[24]: III–13
In addition to the pre-planned landing airfields, there were 85 agreed-upon emergency landing sites to be used in different abort scenarios, with 58 located in other countries. The landing locations were chosen based upon political relationships, forable weather, a runway at least 2,300 m (7,500 ft) long, and TACAN or DME equipment. Additionally, as the orbiter vehicle only had UHF radios, international sites with only VHF radios would he been unable to communicate directly with the crew. Facilities on the east coast of the US were planned for East Coast Abort Landings, while several sites in Europe and Africa were planned in the event of a Transoceanic Abort Landing. The facilities were prepared with equipment and personnel in the event of an emergency shuttle landing but were never used.[24]: III–19
Post-landing processing[edit] Main article: Orbiter Processing Facility Discovery being prepared after landing for crew disembarkment following STS-114After the landing, ground crews approached the orbiter to conduct safety checks. Teams wearing self-contained breathing gear tested for the presence of hydrogen, hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine, nitrogen tetroxide, and ammonia to ensure the landing area was safe.[49] Air conditioning and Freon lines were connected to cool the crew and equipment and dissipate excess heat from reentry.[24]: III-13 A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter and performed medical checks of the crew before they disembarked. Once the orbiter was secured, it was towed to the OPF to be inspected, repaired, and prepared for the next mission.[49] The processing included:
removal and installation of mission-specific items and payloads draining of waste and leftover consumables, and refilling of new consumables inspection and (if necessary) repair of the thermal protection system checkout and servicing of main engines (done in the Main Engine Processing Facility to facilitate easier access, necessitating their removal from the orbiter) if necessary, removal of the Orbital Maneuvering System and Reaction Control System pods for maintenance at the Hypergol Maintenance Facility installation of any mid-life upgrades and modifications Space Shuttle program[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle programThe Space Shuttle flew from April 12, 1981,[24]: III–24 until July 21, 2011.[24]: III–398 Throughout the program, the Space Shuttle had 135 missions,[24]: III–398 of which 133 returned safely.[24]: III–80, 304 Throughout its lifetime, the Space Shuttle was used to conduct scientific research,[24]: III–188 deploy commercial,[24]: III–66 military,[24]: III–68 and scientific payloads,[24]: III–148 and was involved in the construction and operation of Mir[24]: III–216 and the ISS.[24]: III–264 During its tenure, the Space Shuttle served as the only U.S. vehicle to launch astronauts, of which there was no replacement until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on May 30, 2020.[50]
Budget[edit]The overall NASA budget of the Space Shuttle program has been estimated to be $221 billion (in 2012 dollars).[24]: III−488 The developers of the Space Shuttle advocated for reusability as a cost-sing measure, which resulted in higher development costs for presumed lower costs-per-launch. During the design of the Space Shuttle, the Phase B proposals were not as cheap as the initial Phase A estimates indicated; Space Shuttle program manager Robert Thompson acknowledged that reducing cost-per-pound was not the primary objective of the further design phases, as other technical requirements could not be met with the reduced costs.[24]: III−489−490 Development estimates made in 1972 projected a per-pound cost of payload as low as $1,109 (in 2012) per pound, but the actual payload costs, not to include the costs for the research and development of the Space Shuttle, were $37,207 (in 2012) per pound.[24]: III−491 Per-launch costs varied throughout the program and were dependent on the rate of flights as well as research, development, and investigation proceedings throughout the Space Shuttle program. In 1982, NASA published an estimate of $260 million (in 2012) per flight, which was based on the prediction of 24 flights per year for a decade. The per-launch cost from 1995 to 2002, when the orbiters and ISS were not being constructed and there was no recovery work following a loss of crew, was $806 million. NASA published a study in 1999 that concluded that costs were $576 million (in 2012) if there were seven launches per year. In 2009, NASA determined that the cost of adding a single launch per year was $252 million (in 2012), which indicated that much of the Space Shuttle program costs are for year-round personnel and operations that continued regardless of the launch rate. Accounting for the entire Space Shuttle program budget, the per-launch cost was $1.642 billion (in 2012).[24]: III−490
Disasters[edit] Main articles: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and Space Shuttle Columbia disaster STS-51-L Challenger loss, shortly after launch - January 28, 1986.On January 28, 1986, STS-51-L disintegrated 73 seconds after launch, due to the failure of the right SRB, killing all seven astronauts on board Challenger. The disaster was caused by the low-temperature impairment of an O-ring, a mission-critical seal used between segments of the SRB casing. Failure of the O-ring allowed hot combustion gases to escape from between the booster sections and burn through the adjacent ET, leading to a sequence of catastrophic events which caused the orbiter to disintegrate.[51]: 71 Repeated warnings from design engineers voicing concerns about the lack of evidence of the O-rings' safety when the temperature was below 53 °F (12 °C) had been ignored by NASA managers.[51]: 148
STS-107 Columbia disintigrates during atmospheric re-entry - February 1, 2003.On February 1, 2003, Columbia disintegrated during re-entry, killing all seven of the STS-107 crew, because of damage to the carbon-carbon leading edge of the wing caused during launch. Ground control engineers had made three separate requests for high-resolution images taken by the Department of Defense that would he provided an understanding of the extent of the damage, while NASA's chief TPS engineer requested that astronauts on board Columbia be allowed to lee the vehicle to inspect the damage. NASA managers intervened to stop the Department of Defense's imaging of the orbiter and refused the request for the spacewalk,[24]: III–323 [52] and thus the feasibility of scenarios for astronaut repair or rescue by Atlantis were not considered by NASA management at the time.[53]
Criticism[edit] Main article: Criticism of the Space Shuttle programThe partial reusability of the Space Shuttle was one of the primary design requirements during its initial development.[8]: 164 The technical decisions that dictated the orbiter's return and re-use reduced the per-launch payload capabilities. The original intention was to compensate for this lower payload by lowering the per-launch costs and a high launch frequency. However, the actual costs of a Space Shuttle launch were higher than initially predicted, and the Space Shuttle did not fly the intended 24 missions per year as initially predicted by NASA.[54][24]: III–489–490
The Space Shuttle was originally intended as a launch vehicle to deploy satellites, which it was primarily used for on the missions prior to the Challenger disaster. NASA's pricing, which was below cost, was lower than expendable launch vehicles; the intention was that the high volume of Space Shuttle missions would compensate for early financial losses. The improvement of expendable launch vehicles and the transition away from commercial payloads on the Space Shuttle resulted in expendable launch vehicles becoming the primary deployment option for satellites.[24]: III–109–112 A key customer for the Space Shuttle was the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) responsible for spy satellites. The existence of NRO's connection was classified through 1993, and secret considerations of NRO payload requirements led to lack of transparency in the program. The proposed Shuttle-Centaur program, cancelled in the wake of the Challenger disaster, would he pushed the spacecraft beyond its operational capacity.[55]
The fatal Challenger and Columbia disasters demonstrated the safety risks of the Space Shuttle that could result in the loss of the crew. The spaceplane design of the orbiter limited the abort options, as the abort scenarios required the controlled flight of the orbiter to a runway or to allow the crew to egress individually, rather than the abort escape options on the Apollo and Soyuz space capsules.[56] Early safety analyses advertised by NASA engineers and management predicted the chance of a catastrophic failure resulting in the death of the crew as ranging from 1 in 100 launches to as rare as 1 in 100,000.[57][58] Following the loss of two Space Shuttle missions, the risks for the initial missions were reevaluated, and the chance of a catastrophic loss of the vehicle and crew was found to be as high as 1 in 9.[59] NASA management was criticized afterwards for accepting increased risk to the crew in exchange for higher mission rates. Both the Challenger and Columbia reports explained that NASA culture had failed to keep the crew safe by not objectively evaluating the potential risks of the missions.[58][60]: 195–203
Retirement[edit] Main article: Space Shuttle retirement Atlantis after its final landing, marking the end of the Space Shuttle ProgramThe Space Shuttle retirement was announced in January 2004.[24]: III-347 President George W. Bush announced his Vision for Space Exploration, which called for the retirement of the Space Shuttle once it completed construction of the ISS.[61][62] To ensure the ISS was properly assembled, the contributing partners determined the need for 16 remaining assembly missions in March 2006.[24]: III-349 One additional Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission was approved in October 2006.[24]: III-352 Originally, STS-134 was to be the final Space Shuttle mission. However, the Columbia disaster resulted in additional orbiters being prepared for launch on need in the event of a rescue mission. As Atlantis was prepared for the final launch-on-need mission, the decision was made in September 2010 that it would fly as STS-135 with a four-person crew that could remain at the ISS in the event of an emergency.[24]: III-355 STS-135 launched on July 8, 2011, and landed at the KSC on July 21, 2011, at 5:57 a.m. EDT (09:57 UTC).[24]: III-398 From then until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on May 30, 2020, the US launched its astronauts aboard Russian Soyuz spacecraft.[63]
Following each orbiter's final flight, it was processed to make it safe for display. The OMS and RCS systems used presented the primary dangers due to their toxic hypergolic propellant, and most of their components were permanently removed to prevent any dangerous outgassing.[24]: III-443 Atlantis is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida,[24]: III-456 Discovery is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia,[24]: III-451 Endeour is on display at the California Science Center in Los Angeles,[24]: III-457 and Enterprise is displayed at the Intrepid Museum in New York.[24]: III-464 Components from the orbiters were transferred to the US Air Force, ISS program, and Russian and Canadian governments. The engines were removed to be used on the Space Launch System, and spare RS-25 nozzles were attached for display purposes.[24]: III-445
For many Artemis program missions, the Space Launch System's two solid rocket boosters' engines and casings and four main engines and the Orion spacecraft's main engine will all be previously flown Space Shuttle main engines, solid rocket boosters, and Orbital Maneuvering System engines. They are refurbished legacy engines from the Space Shuttle program, some of which even date back to the early 1980s. For example, Artemis I had components that flew on 83 of the 135 Space Shuttle missions. From Artemis I to Artemis IV recycled Shuttle main engines will be used before manufacturing new engines. From Artemis I to Artemis III recycled Shuttle solid rocket boosters' engines and steel casings are to be used before building new ones. From Artemis I to Artemis VI the Orion main engine will use six previously flown Space Shuttle OMS engines.[64][65][66]
See also[edit] Rocketry portalSpaceflight portal Aircraft in fiction § Space Shuttle orbiter List of crewed spacecraft List of Space Shuttle missions Studied Space Shuttle variations and derivativesSimilar spacecraft
Buran – Soviet reusable spaceplane Dream Chaser Space Rider Hermes (cancelled) Kliper (cancelled) Notes[edit] ^ In this case, the number of successes is determined by the number of successful Space Shuttle missions. ^ STS-1 and STS-2 were the only Space Shuttle missions that used a white fire-retardant coating on the external tank. Subsequent missions did not use the latex coating to reduce the mass, and the external tank appeared orange.[15]: 48 ^ A roll reversal is a maneuver where the bank angle is altered from one side to another. They are used to control the deviation of the azimuth from the prograde vector that results from using high bank angles to create drag. References[edit] ^ Bray, Nancy (August 3, 2017). "Kennedy Space Center FAQ". NASA. Archived from the original on November 2, 2019. Retrieved July 13, 2022. ^ "Space Shuttle Era Facts" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved June 24, 2025. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Jenkins, Dennis R. (2001). 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Retrieved March 15, 2025. ^ "SLS (Space Launch System) Solid Rocket Booster". NASA. July 25, 2024. Retrieved March 15, 2025. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Space Shuttle (category) NSTS 1988 Reference manual How The Space Shuttle Works Orbiter Vehicles Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine The Space Shuttle Era: 1981–2011; interactive multimedia on the Space Shuttle orbiters NASA Human Spaceflight – Shuttle High resolution spherical panoramas over, under, around and through Discovery, Atlantis and Endeour Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-116, "Space Transportation System, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX", 6 measured drawings, 728 data pages "No Go-Around: You he only one chance to land the space shuttle" (simulator pilot report, detailed and illustrated), Barry Schiff, April 1999, AOPA Pilot, p. 85., at BarrySchiff.com When We Were Shuttle, explores the Space Shuttle program through the eyes of those who worked to make it fly (PBS) vteSpace Shuttle program Space Shuttle List of missions List of crews Components Orbiter Solid Rocket Booster External tank Main engine Orbital Maneuvering System Reaction control system Thermal protection system Booster separation motor Orbiters Enterprise Columbia Challenger Discovery Atlantis Endeour Add-ons Spacelab (ESA) Canadarm (CSA) Extended Duration Orbiter Remote Controlled Orbiter Spacehab Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Sites Launch Complex 39 A B Space Launch Complex 6 Landing sites Shuttle Landing Facility Abort landing sites Operationsand training Missions (canceled) Crews Mission timeline Mission Control Center Rollbacks Abort modes Rendezvous pitch maneuver Shuttle Mission Simulator Shuttle Training Aircraft Testing Inspiration (design) Pathfinder (simulator) MPTA (engine test article) Approach and Landing Tests Disasters Challenger disaster (report) Columbia disaster (report) Support Crawler-transporter Mate-Demate Device Mobile Launcher Platform NASA recovery ship Orbiter Processing Facility Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) Shuttle Carrier Aircraft flights Shuttle Training Aircraft STS-3xx Special Deutschland-1 Getaway Special Journalist in Space Project Teacher in Space Project Shuttle-Mir Hitchhiker Space suits Extrehicular Mobility Unit Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit Launch Entry Suit Advanced Crew Escape Suit Experiments Freestar experiments Inflatable Antenna Experiment Spartan Packet Radio Experiment Shuttle pallet satellite Wake Shield Facility Derivatives Saturn-Shuttle Magnum Shuttle-Derived Hey Lift Launch Vehicle Jupiter Shuttle-C Shuttle-Centaur Ares I IV V Liberty Space Launch System OmegA Replicas Independence Related Space Shuttle design process studied designs Inertial Upper Stage Payload Assist Module International Space Station Criticism Retirement Conroy Virtus Hail Columbia (1982 documentary) The Dream Is Alive (1985 documentary) Challenger (1990 film) Destiny in Space (1994 documentary) Columbia: The Tragic Loss (2004 documentary) Hubble (2010 documentary) The Challenger Disaster (2013 film) Challenger: The Final Flight (2020 documentary miniseries) Space Shuttle America Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation Space Shuttle Project Shuttle Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space Space Shuttle Mission 2007 Orbiter Space Flight Simulator When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions vteU.S. Space Shuttle missionsCompleted(crews)1970s 1977 Approach and Landing Tests 1980s 1981 STS-1 STS-2 1982 STS-3 STS-4 STS-5 1983 STS-6 STS-7 STS-8 STS-9 1984 STS-41-B STS-41-C STS-41-D STS-41-G STS-51-A 1985 STS-51-C STS-51-D STS-51-B STS-51-G STS-51-F STS-51-I STS-51-J STS-61-A STS-61-B 1986 STS-61-C STS-51-L† 1988 STS-26 STS-27 1989 STS-29 STS-30 STS-28 STS-34 STS-33 1990s 1990 STS-32 STS-36 STS-31 STS-41 STS-38 STS-35 1991 STS-37 STS-39 STS-40 STS-43 STS-48 STS-44 1992 STS-42 STS-45 STS-49 STS-50 STS-46 STS-47 STS-52 STS-53 1993 STS-54 STS-56 STS-55 STS-57 STS-51 STS-58 STS-61 1994 STS-60 STS-62 STS-59 STS-65 STS-64 STS-68 STS-66 1995 STS-63 STS-67 STS-71 STS-70 STS-69 STS-73 STS-74 1996 STS-72 STS-75 STS-76 STS-77 STS-78 STS-79 STS-80 1997 STS-81 STS-82 STS-83 STS-84 STS-94 STS-85 STS-86 STS-87 1998 STS-89 STS-90 STS-91 STS-95 STS-88 1999 STS-96 STS-93 STS-103 2000s 2000 STS-99 STS-101 STS-106 STS-92 STS-97 2001 STS-98 STS-102 STS-100 STS-104 STS-105 STS-108 2002 STS-109 STS-110 STS-111 STS-112 STS-113 2003 STS-107† 2005 STS-114 2006 STS-121 STS-115 STS-116 2007 STS-117 STS-118 STS-120 2008 STS-122 STS-123 STS-124 STS-126 2009 STS-119 STS-125 STS-127 STS-128 STS-129 2010s 2010 STS-130 STS-131 STS-132 2011 STS-133 STS-134 STS-135 Cancelled STS-41-F STS-61-E STS-61-F STS-61-G STS-61-H STS-62-A STS-61-M STS-61-J STS-144 STS-3xx STS-400 Others Orbiters Atlantis Challenger disaster report Columbia disaster investigation Discovery Endeour Enterprise † indicates failure missions. vteSpace Shuttle and Buran-class orbitersUnited States Space Shuttle program (orbiters)Soviet/Russian Buran programme (orbiters) Challenger (OV-099, destroyed in 1986) Enterprise (OV-101, atmospheric tests, retired in 1979) Columbia (OV-102, destroyed in 2003) Discovery (OV-103, retired in 2011) Atlantis (OV-104, retired in 2011) Endeour (OV-105, retired in 2011) Pathfinder (OV-098, ground tests) OK-GLI (BTS-02, atmospheric tests) Buran (1.01, destroyed in 2002) Ptichka (1.02, 95–97% completed) 2.01 (incomplete) 2.02 (partially dismantled) 2.03 (dismantled) Links to related articles vteShuttle–Mir programSpacecraft Space Shuttle Mir Soyuz Missions STS-60 STS-63 Soyuz TM-21 STS-71 STS-74 STS-76 STS-79 STS-81 STS-84 STS-86 STS-89 STS-91 Increments Thagard Lucid Blaha Linenger Foale Wolf Thomas vteInternational Space Station Manufacturing Assembly US Orbital Segment Russian Orbital Segment Spacewalks Programme Scientific research Maintenance Politics Origins Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer Mir-2 Space Station Freedom Support vehiclesCurrent Cygnus SpaceX Dragon 2 Progress Soyuz Boeing Starliner Future Boeing Starliner Dream Chaser Cargo System (DCCS) HTV-X Orel (PPTS) ISS Deorbit Vehicle Former Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) SpaceX Dragon 1 Space Shuttle H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) Cancelled Hermes HOPE-X Mission control MCC-H (NASA) TsUP (Roscosmos) Col-CC (ESA) ATV-CC (ESA) JEM-CC (JAXA) HTV-CC (JAXA) MSS-CC (CSA) Administrative Multilateral Coordination Board Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Resupply Services Commercial Crew Program development history Documentaries Space Station 3D (2002) Space Tourists (2009) First Orbit (2011) A Beautiful Planet (2016) Related Apogee of Fear (2012 film) The Challenge (2023 film) vteComponentsOrbitingRussian Segment Nauka Poisk Prichal Rassvet Zarya Zvezda US Segment BEAM Columbus Cupola Destiny Harmony Kibō Leonardo Quest airlock Tranquility Unity Subsystems Bishop airlock Electrical System European Robotic Arm External Stowage Platforms ExPRESS Logistics Carriers International Docking Adapters Integrated Truss Structure Life Support System Mobile Servicing System Canadarm2 Dextre Boom Assembly Pressurized Mating Adapters Strela cranes Window Observational Research Facility Experimentaldevices AMS-02 CALET CATS GEDI HDEV ISS-CREAM MAXI NICER PK-3 Plus SAGE III FormerMajorcomponents Pirs FuturePlanned Axiom PPTM US Deorbit Vehicle Sparehardware Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules Interim Control Module Node 4 Cancelled Propulsion Module Centrifuge Accommodations Module Habitation Module Crew Return Vehicle Science Power Platform Universal Docking Module Russian Research Module Science Power Module XBASE Related Manufacturing of the ISS Assembly of the ISS Category vteExpeditions2000–2004 Expedition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2005–2009 Expedition 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2010–2014 Expedition 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 2015–2019 Expedition 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 Since 2020 Expedition 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75+ Related List of spaceflights to the ISS List of ISS visitors crew commanders visiting expeditions Displayed and current expeditions are in underline Future expeditions in italics Category List vteISS Human spaceflights1998–2004 1998 STS-88 1999 STS-96 2000 STS-101 106 92 Soyuz TM-31 STS-97 2001 STS-98 102 100 Soyuz TM-32 STS-104 105 Soyuz TM-33 STS-108 2002 STS-110 Soyuz TM-34 STS-111 112 Soyuz TMA-1 STS-113 2003 Soyuz TMA-2 TMA-3 2004 Soyuz TMA-4 TMA-5 2005–2009 2005 Soyuz TMA-6 STS-114 Soyuz TMA-7 2006 Soyuz TMA-8 STS-121 115 Soyuz TMA-9 STS-116 2007 Soyuz TMA-10 STS-117 118 Soyuz TMA-11 STS-120 2008 STS-122 123 Soyuz TMA-12 STS-124 Soyuz TMA-13 STS-126 2009 STS-119 Soyuz TMA-14 TMA-15 STS-127 128 Soyuz TMA-16 STS-129 Soyuz TMA-17 2010–2014 2010 STS-130 Soyuz TMA-18 STS-131 132 Soyuz TMA-19 TMA-01M TMA-20 2011 STS-133 Soyuz TMA-21 STS-134 Soyuz TMA-02M STS-135 Soyuz TMA-22 TMA-03M 2012 Soyuz TMA-04M TMA-05M TMA-06M TMA-07M 2013 Soyuz TMA-08M TMA-09M TMA-10M TMA-11M 2014 Soyuz TMA-12M TMA-13M TMA-14M TMA-15M 2015–2019 2015 Soyuz TMA-16M TMA-17M TMA-18M TMA-19M 2016 Soyuz TMA-20M MS-01 MS-02 MS-03 2017 Soyuz MS-04 MS-05 MS-06 MS-07 2018 Soyuz MS-08 MS-09 MS-10† MS-11 2019 Soyuz MS-12 MS-13 MS-15 2020–2024 2020 Soyuz MS-16 SpaceX Demo-2 Soyuz MS-17 SpaceX Crew-1 2021 Soyuz MS-18 SpaceX Crew-2 Soyuz MS-19 SpaceX Crew-3 Soyuz MS-20 2022 Soyuz MS-21 Axiom-1 SpaceX Crew-4 Soyuz MS-22 SpaceX Crew-5 2023 Soyuz MS-23 SpaceX Crew-6 Axiom-2 SpaceX Crew-7 Soyuz MS-24 2024 Axiom-3 SpaceX Crew-8 Soyuz MS-25 Boeing CFT Soyuz MS-26 SpaceX Crew-9 Since 2025 2025 SpaceX Crew-10 Soyuz MS-27 Axiom-4 SpaceX Crew-11 Soyuz MS-28 Future 2026 SpaceX Crew-12 Soyuz MS-29 Boeing Starliner-2 2027 Soyuz MS-30 Individuals List of ISS visitors crew Vehicles Past Space Shuttle Present Boeing Starliner Crew Dragon Soyuz Ongoing spaceflights are in underline † - mission failed to reach ISS vteUncrewed spaceflights2000–2004 2000 2R / Zvezda 1P 2P 2001 3P 4P 5P SO1 / Pirs 6P 2002 7P 8P 9P 2003 10P 11P 12P 2004 13P 14P 15P 16P 2005–2009 2005 17P 18P 19P 20P 2006 21P 22P 23P 2007 24P 25P 26P 27P 2008 28P ATV-1 29P 30P 31P 2009 32P 33P 34P HTV-1 35P MIM2 / Poisk 2010–2014 2010 36P 37P 38P 39P 40P 2011 HTV-2 41P ATV-2 42P 43P 44P† 45P 2012 46P ATV-3 47P SpX-D HTV-3 48P SpX-1 49P 2013 50P SpX-2 51P ATV-4 52P HTV-4 Orb-D1 53P 2014 Orb-1 54P 55P SpX-3 Orb-2 56P ATV-5 SpX-4 Orb-3† 57P 2015–2019 2015 SpX-5 58P SpX-6 59P† SpX-7† 60P HTV-5 61P OA-4 62P 2016 OA-6 63P SpX-8 64P SpX-9 OA-5 65P† HTV-6 2017 SpX-10 66P OA-7 SpX-11 67P SpX-12 68P OA-8E SpX-13 2018 69P SpX-14 OA-9E SpX-15 70P HTV-7 71P NG-10 SpX-16 2019 SpX-DM1 72P NG-11 SpX-17 SpX-18 73P 60S HTV-8 NG-12 SpX-19 74P Boe-OFT† 2020–2024 2020 NG-13 SpX-20 75P HTV-9 76P NG-14 SpX-21 2021 77P NG-15 SpX-22 78P Nauka NG-16 SpX-23 79P M-UM / Prichal SpX-24 2022 80P NG-17 Boe-OFT 2 81P SpX-25 82P NG-18 SpX-26 2023 83P SpX-27 84P SpX-28 NG-19 85P SpX-29 86P 2024 NG-20 87P SpX-30 88P NG-21 89P SpX-31 90P Since 2025 2025 91P SpX-32 92P SpX-33 93P NG-23 HTV-X1 Future 2026 94P SpX-34 95P Starliner-1 SpX-35 96P 97P NG-22 NG-24 NG-25 2030 US Deorbit Vehicle Spacecraft Roscomos Progress ESA ATV (past) JAXA HTV (past) HTV-X NASA CRS SpaceX Dragon 1 (past) SpaceX Cargo Dragon 2 Northrop Grumman Cygnus Sierra Space Dream Chaser Ongoing spaceflights in underline † - mission failed to reach ISS Category Commons gallery vteOrbital launch systems developed in the United StatesActive Atlas V**†† Electron Falcon 9 Block 5 Falcon Hey Firefly Alpha Minotaur I IV V C New Glenn Pegasus XL SLS Block 1 Vulcan Centaur In development Antares 330 Daytona I Eclipse Neutron Nova Red Dwarf SLS Block 1B Block 2 Starship Terran R Retired Antares 110/120/130/230/230+**††† Athena I II Atlas B D E/F G H I II III** LV-3B SLV-3 Able Agena Centaur Conestoga† Delta A B C D E G J L M N 0100 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 II III IV IV Hey Falcon 1 Falcon 9 v1.0 v1.1 v1.2 "Full Thrust" H-I* Juno I Juno II LauncherOne N-I* N-II* Pilot† Rocket 3 RS1† Saturn I IB V Scout Space Shuttle SPARK† Sparta Terran 1† Thor Able Ablestar Agena Burner Delta DSV-2U Thorad-Agena Titan II GLV IIIA IIIB IIIC IIID IIIE 34D 23G CT-3 IV Vanguard * - Japanese projects using US rockets or stages ** - uses Russian engines † - never succeeded †† - no new orders accepted and production stopped ††† - used Ukrainian first stage vteHuman spaceflights to the International Space StationSee also: ISS expeditions, Uncrewed ISS flights1998–2004 1998 STS-88 1999 STS-96 2000 STS-101 106 92 Soyuz TM-31 STS-97 2001 STS-98 102 100 Soyuz TM-32 STS-104 105 Soyuz TM-33 STS-108 2002 STS-110 Soyuz TM-34 STS-111 112 Soyuz TMA-1 STS-113 2003 Soyuz TMA-2 TMA-3 2004 Soyuz TMA-4 TMA-5 International Space Station Emblem2005–2009 2005 Soyuz TMA-6 STS-114 Soyuz TMA-7 2006 Soyuz TMA-8 STS-121 115 Soyuz TMA-9 STS-116 2007 Soyuz TMA-10 STS-117 118 Soyuz TMA-11 STS-120 2008 STS-122 123 Soyuz TMA-12 STS-124 Soyuz TMA-13 STS-126 2009 STS-119 Soyuz TMA-14 TMA-15 STS-127 128 Soyuz TMA-16 STS-129 Soyuz TMA-17 2010–2014 2010 STS-130 Soyuz TMA-18 STS-131 132 Soyuz TMA-19 TMA-01M TMA-20 2011 STS-133 Soyuz TMA-21 STS-134 Soyuz TMA-02M STS-135 Soyuz TMA-22 TMA-03M 2012 Soyuz TMA-04M TMA-05M TMA-06M TMA-07M 2013 Soyuz TMA-08M TMA-09M TMA-10M TMA-11M 2014 Soyuz TMA-12M TMA-13M TMA-14M TMA-15M 2015–2019 2015 Soyuz TMA-16M TMA-17M TMA-18M TMA-19M 2016 Soyuz TMA-20M MS-01 MS-02 MS-03 2017 Soyuz MS-04 MS-05 MS-06 MS-07 2018 Soyuz MS-08 MS-09 MS-10† MS-11 2019 Soyuz MS-12 MS-13 MS-15 2020–2024 2020 Soyuz MS-16 SpaceX Demo-2 Soyuz MS-17 SpaceX Crew-1 2021 Soyuz MS-18 SpaceX Crew-2 Soyuz MS-19 SpaceX Crew-3 Soyuz MS-20 2022 Soyuz MS-21 Axiom-1 SpaceX Crew-4 Soyuz MS-22 SpaceX Crew-5 2023 Soyuz MS-23 SpaceX Crew-6 Axiom-2 SpaceX Crew-7 Soyuz MS-24 2024 Axiom-3 SpaceX Crew-8 Soyuz MS-25 Boeing CFT Soyuz MS-26 SpaceX Crew-9 Since 2025 2025 SpaceX Crew-10 Soyuz MS-27 Axiom-4 SpaceX Crew-11 Soyuz MS-28 Future 2026 SpaceX Crew-12 Soyuz MS-29 Boeing Starliner-2 2027 Soyuz MS-30 Individuals List of ISS visitors crew Vehicles Past Space Shuttle Present Boeing Starliner Crew Dragon Soyuz Ongoing spaceflights are in underline † - mission failed to reach ISS vteNASAPolicy and historyHistory(creation) NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Ranks and positions Chief Budget NASA research spinoff technologies NASA+ NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Mercury Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 Launch Complex 48 Launch Control Center Operations and Checkout Building Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory Science Mission Directorate Human spaceflightprogramsPast X-15 (suborbital) Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz (with the Soviet space program) Space Shuttle Shuttle–Mir (with Roscosmos) Constellation Current International Space Station Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Crew Orion Artemis Lunar Gateway Robotic programsPast Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Mars Exploration Mars Exploration Rover Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorers Voyager Discovery New Frontiers Solar Terrestrial Probes Commercial Lunar Payload Services SIMPLEx Individual featured missions(human and robotic)Past Apollo 11 COBE Mercury 3 Mercury-Atlas 6 Magellan Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Galileo timeline GALEX GRAIL WMAP Space Shuttle Spitzer Space Telescope Sojourner rover Spirit rover LADEE MESSENGER Aquarius Cassini Dawn Kepler space telescope Opportunity rover timeline observed RHESSI InSight Ingenuity helicopter flights Currentlyoperating Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey New Horizons International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory Swift THEMIS Mars Exploration Rover Curiosity rover timeline GOES 14 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter GOES 15 SDO Juno Mars Science Laboratory timeline NuSTAR Voyager 1 Voyager 2 MEN MMS OSIRIS-APEX TESS Mars 2020 Perseverance rover timeline James Webb Space Telescope timeline PACE Europa Clipper Future NISAR Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope DINCI VERITAS Communicationsand nigation Near Earth Network Space Network Deep Space Network (Goldstone Madrid Canberra Space Flight Operations Facility) Deep Space Atomic Clock NASA lists Astronauts by name by year Gemini astronauts Apollo astronauts Space Shuttle crews NASA aircraft NASA missions uncrewed missions Apollo missions Space Shuttle missions United States rockets NASA cancellations NASA cameras on spacecraft NASA imagesand artwork Earthrise The Blue Marble Family Portrait Pale Blue Dot Pillars of Creation Mystic Mountain Solar System Family Portrait The Day the Earth Smiled Fallen Astronaut Deep fields Lunar plaques Pioneer plaques Voyager Golden Record Apollo 11 goodwill messages NASA insignia Gemini and Apollo medallions Mission patches Astronomy Picture of the Day Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images Related "We choose to go to the Moon" "One small step" Apollo 8 Genesis reading Apollo 15 postal covers incident Apollo Lunar Module Space Mirror Memorial The Astronaut Monument Lunar sample displays Moon rocks stolen or missing U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame Space program on U.S. stamps Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon tree Other primates in space NASA Exoplanet Archive NASA International Space Apps Challenge Astronauts Day National Astronaut Day Nikon NASA F4 Category vteOrbital launch systems List of orbital launch systems Comparison of orbital launch systems Current Angara 1.2 A5 Ariane 6 Atlas V Ceres 1 1S Chollima-1 Electron Eris† Falcon 9 Block 5 Falcon Hey Firefly Alpha Grity-1 GSLV H3 HANBIT-NANO† Hyperbola-1 Jielong 1 3 KAIROS† Kaituozhe 2 Kinetica 1 Kuaizhou 1 1A 11 Long March 2C 2D 2F 3A 3B/E 3C 4B 4C 5 5B 6 6A 6C 7 7A 8 11 11H 12 12A LVM3 Minotaur I IV V C New Glenn Nuri OS-M1† Pegasus XL Proton-M PSLV Qaem 100 Qased Shit 2 Simorgh SLS Block 1 Soyuz-2 2.1a / STA 2.1b / STB Spectrum† SSLV Starship Tianlong-2 Unha Vega C Vulcan Centaur Zhuque 2E 3 In development Antares 330 Bloostar Blue Whale 1 Ceres-2 Cyclone-4M Deca Eclipse Epsilon S Grity-2 Hyperbola-2 Irtysh Kinetica 2 2H 3 KSLV-III Kuaizhou 21 31 Long March 9 10 Miura 5 Neutron New Line 1 NGLV Nova OS-M 2 4 Orbex Prime Pallas-1 Red Dwarf RFA One SLS Block 1B Block 2 Soyuz-7 Terran R Tianlong-3 VLM Vega E Zero Zuljanah Retired Antares 110 120 130† 230 230+ Ariane 1 2 3 4 5 ASLV Athena I II Atlas B D E/F G H I II III LV-3B SLV-3 Able† Agena Centaur Black Arrow Conestoga† Delta A B C D E G J L M N 0100 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 II III IV IV Hey Diamant Dnepr Energia Epsilon Europa I† II† Falcon 1 Falcon 9 v1.0 v1.1 v1.2 "Full Thrust" Feng Bao 1 GSLV Mk I H-I H-II H-IIA H-IIB Juno I Juno II Kaituozhe-1 Kosmos original 1 2/2I 3 3M Lambda 4S LauncherOne Long March 1 1D† 2A 2E 3 3B 4A Mu 4S 3C 3H 3S 3SII V N1† N-I N-II Naro-1 Paektusan† Pilot-2† R-7 Luna Molniya M L Polyot Soyuz original FG L M U U2 2-1v Soyuz/Vostok Sputnik Voskhod Vostok L K 2 2M R-29 Shtil' Volna† Rocket 3 RS1† Safir 1 1A 1B Saturn I IB V Scout X-1 Blue Scout II† X-2† X-2M X-3 X-3M X-4 X-2B† B A B-1 D-1 A-1 E-1 F-1 G-1 Shit original 1 SLV Space Shuttle SPARK† Sparta SS-520 Start-1 Terran 1† Thor Able Ablestar 1 2 Agena A B D Burner 1 2 Delta DSV-2U Thorad-Agena SLV-2G SLV-2H Titan II GLV IIIA IIIB IIIC IIID IIIE 34D 23G CT-3 IV Tsyklon R-36-O original 2 3 Universal Rocket UR-500 Proton Proton-K Rokot Strela Vanguard Vega original VLS-1† Zenit 2 2M 2FG 3SL 3SLB 3F Zhuque 1† 2 Classes Sounding rocket Small-lift launch vehicle Medium-lift launch vehicle Hey-lift launch vehicle Super hey-lift launch vehicle This template lists historical, current, and future space rockets that at least once attempted (but not necessarily succeeded in) an orbital launch or that are planned to attempt such a launch in the future Symbol † indicates past or current rockets that attempted orbital launches but never succeeded (never did or has yet to perform a successful orbital launch) vteReusable launch systems and spacecraftLaunch systemsActive Falcon 9 (first stage) Falcon Hey (core stages) New Glenn (first stage) New Shepard* (fully reusable) Retired Space Shuttle (orbiter and boosters) Petrel* (booster) Skua* (booster) In development Amur (Soyuz-7) (first stage) Ariane Next CALLISTO CORONA Electron (first stage) Hyperbola-3 (first stage) Long March 6X (first stage) 8R (first stage) Miura 5 (first stage) Orbex Prime (first stage) Pallas-1 (first stage) RLV-TD Rocket Lab Neutron (first stage) Starship (SpaceX) Stoke Space Nova Terran R (first stage) Tianlong-3 (first stage) Vulcan (engines) Proposals Kankoh-maru SASSTO Saturn-Shuttle Canceled Adeline Angara Ares I (first stage) Ares V (boosters) Chang Cheng-1 Energia II (Uragan) Falcon 1e Falcon 5 Nexus Hyperbola-2 HOPE-X Hopper / Phoenix HOTOL K-1 Liquid Fly-back Booster MAKS Reusable Booster System Roton Sea Dragon Skylon Tianjiao-1 Spiral V-2 VentureStar SpacecraftActive Boeing Starliner (capsule) Boeing X-37 New Shepard* (capsule) Dragon 2 Shenlong Retired Dragon (capsule) Gemini SC-2* SpaceShipOne* SpaceShipTwo* Space Shuttle orbiter X-15* In development Dream Chaser Mengzhou (capsule) Orel (spacecraft) (capsule) Orion (capsule) Starship upper stage Proposals Avatar Goodyear Meteor Junior Ya Guidao Gainian Feixingqi* SUSIE Cancelled Buran-class orbiter (never actually reused, flew just once) H-2 Kliper Lynx* Mustard Silver Dart SOAR X-30 NASP* X-33* SpaceShipThree* * indicates suborbital vehicles vteSpaceflightGeneral Astrodynamics History Timeline Space Race Records Accidents and incidents Space launch Space policy Australia China European Space Agency European Union India Japan North Korea South Korea Russia Soviet Union United States Space law Outer Space Treaty Rescue Agreement Space Liability Convention Registration Convention Moon Treaty Space warfare Space command Space force Militarisation of space Private spaceflight Billionaire space race Applications Astronomy Earth observation Archaeology Imagery and mapping Reconnaissance Weather and environment monitoring Communications satellite Internet Radio Telephone Television Satellite nigation Commercial use of space Space launch market competition Space architecture Space exploration Space research Space technology Space weather Human spaceflightGeneral Astronaut commercial Life-support system Animals in space Bioastronautics Space suit Extrehicular activity Overview effect Weightlessness Space toilet Space tourism Space colonization Space diving Programs Vostok Mercury Voskhod Gemini Soyuz Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz Space Shuttle Mir Shuttle–Mir International Space Station Shenzhou Tiangong New Shepard Artemis Health issues Effect of spaceflight on the human body Space adaptation syndrome Health threat from cosmic rays Space psychology Psychological and sociological effects Space and survival Space medicine Space nursing Space sexology Spacecraft Launch vehicle Rocket Space capsule Orbital module Reentry capsule Service module Spaceplane Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Lander Rover Self-replicating spacecraft Space telescope Spacecraft propulsion Rocket engine Field propulsion Electric propulsion Solar sail Grity assist Destinations Sub-orbital Orbital Geocentric Geosynchronous Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic Space launch Direct ascent Escape velocity Expendable and reusable launch systems Launch pad Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceport Ground segment Flight controller Ground station Pass Mission control center Category Portal vteCrewed spacecraft (programs)Active China Shenzhou Russia Soyuz United States Crew Dragon Starliner New Shepard Retired Soviet Union Vostok Voskhod Buran United States X-15 Mercury Gemini Apollo Command and service module Apollo Lunar Module Space Shuttle SpaceShipOne SpaceShipTwo In development China Mengzhou Lanyue India Gaganyaan Russia Orel United States Orion Starship Starship HLS Blue Moon Dream Chaser Cancelled United States SpaceShip III vteHistory of the United States Timeline Outline EventsPre-Colonial Geological Pre-Columbian era Colonial Exploration of North America European colonization Native American epidemics Settlement of Jamestown Thirteen Colonies Atlantic sle trade King William's War Queen Anne's War Dummer's War First Great Awakening War of Jenkins' Ear King George's War Prelude to Revolution American Enlightenment French and Indian War Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Act Stamp Act Congress Sons of Liberty Boston Massacre Boston Tea Party Intolerable Acts First Continental Congress Continental Association 1776–1789 American Revolution War Second Continental Congress Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence Treaty of Paris Confederation period Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union Pennsylvania Mutiny Shays' Rebellion Northwest Ordinance Drafting and ratification of the Constitution 1789–1815 Bill of Rights Federalist Era Whiskey Rebellion Quasi-War Jeffersonian era Louisiana Purchase War of 1812 1815–1849 Era of Good Feelings Missouri Compromise Monroe Doctrine Jacksonian era Trail of Tears Nat Turner's sle rebellion Nullification crisis Westward expansion Mexican–American War Seneca Falls Convention First Industrial Revolution Second Great Awakening 1849–1865 Antebellum Era California Gold Rush Greater Reconstruction Prelude to War Compromise of 1850 Fugitive Sle Act Kansas–Nebraska Act Bleeding Kansas Dred Scott decision Election of Lincoln Secession Civil War Emancipation Proclamation Assassination of Abraham Lincoln 1865–1917 Reconstruction era Amendments First transcontinental railroad Ku Klux Klan Enforcement Acts Compromise of 1877 Second Industrial Revolution Gilded Age The Gospel of Wealth Assassination of James A. Garfield Chinese Exclusion Act Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act Haymarket affair Sherman Antitrust Act Progressive Era Spanish–American War Imperialism Assassination of William McKinley Square Deal Nadir of American race relations 1917–1945 World War I Paris Peace Conference First Red Scare Roaring Twenties Prohibition Women's suffrage Tulsa race massacre Second Klan Bath School disaster Harlem Renaissance Great Depression Wall Street crash of 1929 Dust Bowl New Deal World War II Pearl Harbor home front Manhattan Project Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1945–1964 Strike we of 1945–1946 Start of Cold War Truman Doctrine Early Cold War North Atlantic Treaty Korean War Ivy Mike McCarthyism Post-war boom Project Mercury Civil Rights Movement Early–mid Cold War Cuban Missile Crisis Assassination of John F. Kennedy 1964–1980 Great Society Space Race Project Gemini Apollo program Mid Cold War Détente Vietnam War Fall of Saigon Assassination of Malcolm X Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy Counterculture Second-we feminism Gay liberation Stonewall riots Kent State massacre Roe v. Wade Watergate scandal Pardon of Richard Nixon Assassinations of George Moscone and Harvey Milk Iran hostage crisis Moral Majority 1980–1991 Reagan era Presidential elections 1980 1984 1988 Reaganomics Iran–Contra affair Crack epidemic Late Cold War Invasion of Grenada Reagan Doctrine End of the Cold War Space Shuttle program War on drugs Invasion of Panama 1991–2016 Gulf War NAFTA Los Angeles riots WTC bombing Waco siege Republican Revolution Oklahoma City bombing Columbine Bush v. Gore September 11 attacks War on terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War 2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season Hurricane Katrina Virginia Tech shooting Great Recession Killing of Osama bin Laden 2012 Benghazi attack Rise in mass shootings Tucson Aurora Sandy Hook Orlando Hurricane Sandy Black Lives Matter Obergefell v. Hodges 2016–present 2016 presidential election Trumpism Unite the Right rally Continued rise in mass shootings Las Vegas Parkland El Paso Uvalde 2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season Harvey Irma Maria COVID-19 pandemic recession George Floyd protests Murder Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election January 6 attack Afghanistan withdrawal Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization Support of Ukraine 2023 labor strikes 2023 banking crisis Indictments of Donald Trump Attempted assassination of Donald Trump in Pennsylvania 2025 shootings of Minnesota legislators Assassination of Charlie Kirk Topics American Century Antisemitism Cultural Cinema Music Newspapers Sports Demography Immigration Economy Banking Education Higher education Flag Government Abortion Capital punishment Civil Rights Corruption The Constitution Debt ceiling Direct democracy Foreign policy Law enforcement Postal service Taxation Voting rights Journalism Merchant Marine Military Army Marine Corps Ny Air Force Space Force Coast Guard Party Systems First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Religion Genocide Slery Sexual slery Technology and industry Agriculture Labor Lumber Medicine Railway Groups African American Asian American Chinese American Filipino American Indian American Japanese American Korean American Thai American Vietnamese American European American Albanian American English American Estonian American Finnish American Irish American Italian American Lithuanian American Polish American Serbian American Hispanic and Latino American Mexican American Jewish American Middle Eastern American Egyptian American Iranian American Iraqi American Lebanese American Palestinian American Saudi American Native Americans Cherokee Comanche Women LGBTQ Gay men Lesbians Transgender people PlacesTerritorial evolution Admission to the Union Historical regions American frontier Manifest destiny Indian removal Regions New England The South The West Coast States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Federal DistrictWashington, D.C.Insular areas American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Outlying islands Baker Island Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Atoll Kingman Reef Midway Atoll Nassa Island Palmyra Atoll Wake Island Cities Urban history Cities List of years Historiography Category Portal Authority control databases InternationalGNDFASTNationalUnited StatesJapanIsraelOtherNARAYale LUX