A biome (/ˈbaɪ.oʊm/ BY-ohm) is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, animal life, and an ecosystem. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate.[1] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[2][3] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[4]
However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude, or soil).[5]
In the Brazilian literature, the term biome is sometimes used as a synonym of biogeographic province, an area based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.[6][7][8]
Classifications[edit]To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the erage conditions that predominate in them.[9]
A 1978 study on North American grasslands[10] found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.[11] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones[edit] Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Although conceived as three-dimensional by its originator, it is usually shown as a two-dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular frame. Main article: Holdridge life zonesIn 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.
Allee (1949) biome-types[edit]The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[12]
Tundra Taiga Deciduous forest Grasslands Desert High plateaus Tropical forest Minor terrestrial biomes Kendeigh (1961) biomes[edit]The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[13]
Terrestrial Temperate deciduous forest Coniferous forest Woodland Chaparral Tundra Grassland Desert Tropical sanna Tropical forest Marine Oceanic plankton and nekton Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte Pelecypod-annelid Coral reef Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types[edit] The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation.Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.
Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.[14]
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme[edit] Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species – including plants. Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities. Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent. Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy. Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities.[15]
Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types[edit]Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[15]
Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide Climatic moisture gradient Temperature gradient by altitude Temperature gradient by latitudeAlong these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:
The gradient runs from forable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity. Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how forable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less forable). Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from forable to extreme environments. Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines. The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs erage annual precipitation (x-axis) versus erage annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.
Biome-types[edit] Tropical rainforest Tropical seasonal rainforest deciduous semideciduous Temperate giant rainforest Montane rainforest Temperate deciduous forest Temperate evergreen forest needleleaf sclerophyll Subarctic-subalpine needle-leed forests (taiga) Elfin woodland Thorn forest Thorn scrub Temperate woodland Temperate shrublands deciduous heath sclerophyll subalpine-needleleaf subalpine-broadleaf Sanna Temperate grassland Alpine grasslands Tundra Tropical desert Warm-temperate desert Cool temperate desert scrub Arctic-alpine desert Bog Tropical fresh-water swamp forest Temperate fresh-water swamp forest Mangrove swamp Salt marsh Wetland[16] Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types[edit]The multi-authored series Ecosystems of the World, edited by Did W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:[17]
Terrestrial Ecosystems Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems Wet Coastal EcosystemsDry Coastal EcosystemsPolar and Alpine TundraMires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and MoorTemperate Deserts and Semi-DesertsConiferous ForestsTemperate Deciduous ForestsNatural GrasslandsHeathlands and Related ShrublandsTemperate Broad-Leed Evergreen ForestsMediterranean-Type ShrublandsHot Deserts and Arid ShrublandsTropical SannasTropical Rain Forest EcosystemsWetland ForestsEcosystems of Disturbed GroundManaged Terrestrial Ecosystems Managed GrasslandsField Crop EcosystemsTree Crop EcosystemsGreenhouse EcosystemsBioindustrial EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems Inland Aquatic Ecosystems River and Stream EcosystemsLakes and ReservoirsMarine Ecosystems Intertidal and Littoral EcosystemsCoral ReefsEstuaries and Enclosed SeasEcosystems of the Continental ShelvesEcosystems of the Deep OceanManaged Aquatic Ecosystems Managed Aquatic EcosystemsUnderground Ecosystems Ce Ecosystems Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes[edit]The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[5][18][19]
Number Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation type ZB I Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforest ZB II Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler "winter" dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or sanna ZB III Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate Serosemes, sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface ZB IV Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands ZB V Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive ZB VI Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest ZB VII Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts ZB VIII Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leed forest (taiga) ZB IX Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils) Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils Schultz (1988) eco-zones[edit]Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[20]
polar/subpolar zone boreal zone humid mid-latitudes dry mid-latitudes subtropics with winter rain subtropics with year-round rain dry tropics and subtropics tropics with summer rain tropics with year-round rain Bailey (1989) ecoregions[edit]Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[21][22]
100 Polar Domain 120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft) M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces 130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E) M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces 200 Humid Temperate Domain 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb) M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca) M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf) M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces 240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do) M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb) 260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs) M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces 300 Dry Domain 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division 330 Temperate Steppe Division 340 Temperate Desert Division 400 Humid Tropical Domain 410 Sanna Division 420 Rainforest DivisionOlson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200[edit] Main article: Global 200 Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson & Dinerstein et al. and used by the WWF and Global 200. 01. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests 02. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests 03. Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests 04. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests 05. Temperate coniferous forests 06. Taiga and Boreal forest 07. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, sannas, and shrublands 08. Temperate grasslands, sannas, and shrublands 09. Flooded grasslands and sannas 10. Montane grasslands and shrublands 11. Tundra 12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub 13. Deserts and xeric shrublands 14. Mangroves Rock and Ice, or Abiotic Land Zones [fr]
A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).[23][24]
This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.[23]
For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)[edit] The western Palearctic terrestrial ecozone has 9 of the 14 biomes numbered by Olson & Dinerstein et al. 04. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests 05. Temperate coniferous forests 06. Taiga and Boreal forest 08. Temperate grasslands, sannas, and shrublands 09. Flooded grasslands and sannas 10. Montane grasslands and shrublands 11. Tundra 12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub 13. Deserts and xeric shrublands Rock and Ice, or Abiotic Land Zones NA: Nearctic PA: Palearctic AT: Afrotropic IM: Indomalaya AA: Australasia NT: Neotropic OC: Oceania AN: Antarctic[24]The applicability of the realms scheme above – based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.[25]
Biogeographic realms (marine)[edit] Arctic Temperate Northern Atlantic Temperate Northern Pacific Tropical Atlantic Western Indo-Pacific Central Indo-Pacific Eastern Indo-Pacific Tropical Eastern Pacific Temperate South America Temperate Southern Africa Temperate Australasia Southern Ocean[26] Biomes (terrestrial)[edit] Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid) Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid) Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid) Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid) Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid) Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid) Tropical and subtropical grasslands, sannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid) Temperate grasslands, sannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid) Flooded grasslands and sannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated) Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate) Tundra (Arctic) Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall) Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid) Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[24] Biomes (freshwater)[edit]According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[27]
Large lakes Large river deltas Polar freshwaters Montane freshwaters Temperate coastal rivers Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands Temperate upland rivers Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands Tropical and subtropical upland rivers Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins Oceanic islands Biomes (marine)[edit]Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):
Polar Temperate shelves and sea Temperate upwelling Tropical upwelling Tropical coral[28] Summary of the scheme[edit] Biosphere Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8) Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (14) Ecosystems (biotopes) Biosphere Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8) Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (12) Ecosystems (biotopes) Biosphere Biogeographic realms (marine) (12) (Marine provinces) (62) Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (5) Ecosystems (biotopes)Example:
Biosphere Biogeographic realm: Palearctic Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone) Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list) Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba) Other biomes[edit] Marine biomes[edit] Further information: Marine habitatsPruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[29]
Littoral zone Pelagic zone Abyssal zoneLonghurst (1998) biomes:[30]
Coastal Polar Trade wind WesterlyOther marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):[citation needed]
Open sea Deep sea Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Benthic zone Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies) Abyssal Hadal (ocean trench) Littoral/Intertidal zone Salt marsh Estuaries Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons Kelp forest Pack ice Anthropogenic biomes[edit] Further information: Anthropogenic biome Anthropogenic biomes he grown dramatically in the past few centuriesHumans he altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they he been replaced by crops and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.
Similarities can be seen between the 14 terrestrial bioregions of Olson & Dinerstein et al. and the 17 land cover classes of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, "which includes 11 natural vegetation classes, 3 developed and mosaicked land classes, and 3 non-vegetated land classes", as detected by satellites.[31] Water Evergreen Needleleaf forest Evergreen Broadleaf forest Deciduous Needleleaf Forest Deciduous Broadleaf Forest Mixed Forest Closed Shrubland Open Shrubland Woody Sannas Sannas Grasslands Permanent Wetlands Croplands Urban and Built-Up Cropland/Natural Vegetation Mosaic Snow and Ice Barren or Sparsely VegetatedMajor anthropogenic biomes:
Dense settlements Croplands Rangelands Forested Indoor[32] Microbial biomes[edit] Main article: Microbiome Further information: Habitat § Microhabitats Endolithic biomes[edit]The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.[33]
Effects of climate change[edit]Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes.[34][35] Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely.[36] More specifically, between 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes.[34] 3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual.[37][38] An example of a biome shift is woody plant encroachment, which can change grass sanna into shrub sanna.[39]
Average temperatures he risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes,[40][41][42] which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change.[40] South American terrestrial biomes he been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes.[43][44] With its annual erage temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up.[43][45]
This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on biomes.[edit] Predicated changes for Earth's biomes under two different climate change scenarios for 2081–2100. Top row is low emissions scenario, bottom row is high emissions scenario. Biomes are classified with Holdridge life zones system. A shift of 1 or 100% (darker colours) indicates that the region has fully moved into a completely different biome zone type.[46]Climate change is already now altering biomes, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine ecosystems.[47][48] Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and erage weather patterns.[49][50] This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity of extreme weather events.[51] As a region's climate changes, a change in its flora and fauna follows.[52] For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, half were found to he shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change.[53]
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Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 9 August 2021. p. SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2021. ^ Van der Putten, Wim H.; Macel, Mirka; Visser, Marcel E. (2010-07-12). "Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1549): 2025–2034. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0037. PMC 2880132. PMID 20513711. ^ Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004 Further reading[edit] Ritter, Michael E. (2005). The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography. University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. External links[edit] Look up Biome in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a trel guide for Biomes and ecosystems. University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's The World's Biomes Gale/Cengage Biome Overview (archived 11 July 2011) "Biomes". Encyclopedia of Earth. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2016-02-25. Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map Archived 2010-01-04 at the Wayback Machine WorldBiomes.com (archived 22 February 2011) Panda.org's Major Habitat Types (archived 6 July 2017) NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes Archived 2020-08-05 at the Wayback Machine World Map of Desert Biomes Archived 2022-10-14 at the Wayback Machine vteBiogeographic regionsBiomesTerrestrialbiomesPolar/montane Tundra Taiga Montane grasslands and shrublands Temperate Coniferous forests Broadleaf and mixed forests Deciduous forests Grasslands, sannas, and shrublands Tropical andsubtropical Coniferous forests Moist broadleaf forests Dry broadleaf forests Grasslands, sannas, and shrublands Dry Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Deserts and xeric shrublands Steppe Wet Flooded grasslands and sannas Riparian Wetland Mangroves Aquaticbiomes Pond Littoral Intertidal Kelp forests Coral reefs Neritic zone Pelagic zone Benthic zone Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Demersal zone Other biomes Endolithic zone Biogeographic realmsTerrestrial Afrotropical Antarctic Australasian Holarctic Nearctic Palearctic Indomalayan Neotropical Oceanian Marine Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Central Indo-Pacific Eastern Indo-Pacific Temperate Australasia Temperate Northern Atlantic Temperate Northern Pacific Temperate South America Temperate Southern Africa Tropical Atlantic Tropical Eastern Pacific Western Indo-Pacific Subdivisions Biogeographic provinces Bioregions Ecoregions Lists of ecoregions Global 200 ecoregions See also Altitudinal zonation Ecological classification Floristic kingdoms Vegetation classifications Wallace Line Zoogeography vteEarth Outline History Atmosphere Atmosphere of Earth Prebiotic atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Weather Climate Climate system Energy balance Climate change Climate variability and change Climatology Paleoclimatology Continents Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Culture and society List of sovereign states dependent territories In culture Earth Day Flag Symbol World economy Etymology World history Time zones World Environment Biome Biosphere Biogeochemical cycles Ecology Ecosystem Human impact on the environment Evolutionary history of life Nature Geodesy Cartography Computer cartography Earth's orbit Geodetic astronomy Geomatics Grity Nigation Remote Sensing Geopositioning Virtual globe Geophysics Earth structure Fluid dynamics Geomagnetism Magnetosphere Mineral physics Seismology Plate tectonics Signal processing Tomography Geology Age of Earth Earth science Extremes on Earth Future Geological history Geologic time scale Geologic record History of Earth Oceans Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanography Planetary science The Moon Evolution of the Solar System Geology of solar terrestrial planets Location in the Universe Solar System Category vteHierarchy of life Biosphere > Biome > Ecosystem > Biocoenosis > Population > Organism > Organ system > Organ > Tissue > Cell > Organelle > Biomolecular complex > Macromolecule > Biomolecule Portals: Biology Earth sciences Ecology Environment Authority control databases InternationalGNDNationalUnited StatesCzech RepublicIsraelOtherEncyclopedia of Modern UkraineYale LUX