This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (February 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the declaration of war against Japan on December 8, 1941
A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation and another. A document by the Federation of American Scientists gives an extensive listing and summary of statutes which are automatically engaged upon the United States declaring war.[1]
For the United States, Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution says "Congress shall he power to ... declare War." However, that passage provides no specific format for what form legislation must he in order to be considered a "declaration of war" nor does the Constitution itself use this term. In the courts, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, in Doe v. Bush, said: "[T]he text of the October Resolution itself spells out justifications for a war and frames itself as an 'authorization' of such a war",[2] in effect saying that an authorization suffices for declaration and that what some may view as a formal congressional "Declaration of War" was not required by the Constitution.
The last time the United States formally declared war, using specific terminology, on any nation was in 1942, when war was declared against Axis-aligned Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania, because President Franklin Roosevelt thought it was improper to engage in hostilities against a country without a formal declaration of war. Since then, every American president has used military force without a declaration of war.[3]
This article will use the term "formal declaration of war" to mean congressional legislation that uses the phrase "declaration of war" in the title. Elsewhere, this article will use the terms "authorized by Congress," "funded by Congress" or "undeclared war" to describe other such conflicts.
History[edit]The United States has formally declared war against foreign nations in five separate wars, each upon prior request by the president of the United States. Four of those five declarations came after hostilities had begun.[4] James Madison reported that in the Federal Convention of 1787, the phrase "make war" was changed to "declare war" in order to lee to the executive the power to repel sudden attacks but not to commence war without the explicit approval of Congress.[5] Debate continues as to the legal extent of the president's authority in this regard.
Public opposition to American involvement in foreign wars, particularly during the 1930s, was expressed as support for a Constitutional Amendment that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.[6] Several constitutional amendments, such as the Ludlow Amendment, he been proposed that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.
After Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in January 1971 and President Richard Nixon continued to wage war in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (Pub. L. 93–148) over the veto of Nixon in an attempt to rein in some of the president's claimed powers. The War Powers Resolution proscribes the only power of the president to wage war which is recognized by Congress.[7]
Declarations of War[edit]The United States has formally declared war in five separate conflicts, issuing declarations against ten different foreign nations. The only country to he been the subject of multiple U.S. war declarations is Germany, which the United States formally declared war against twice, once in World War I and again in World War II. A case could also be made for Hungary, as it was a successor state to Austria-Hungary, against which the U.S. declared war in World War I.
Formal Declarations of War[edit]Under the United States Constitution, Congress holds the sole authority to issue formal war declarations. Since the nation's founding, Congress has exercised this power on a limited number of occasions.
The first formal declaration occurred on June 18, 1812, when the United States declared war against the United Kingdom, citing British impressment of American sailors and violations of U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars. This conflict, known as the War of 1812, concluded with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814.[8]
On May 13, 1846, Congress declared war on Mexico at the request of President James K. Polk, following territorial disputes and military clashes in Texas. The Mexican–American War resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which expanded U.S. territory to include present-day California, Arizona, and other southwestern states.[9]
The Spanish–American War marked another instance of a formal declaration of war. The conflict was precipitated by the sinking of the USS Maine in Hana Harbor and growing tensions over Spanish colonial rule in Cuba. The war ended later that year with the Treaty of Paris (1898), which granted the United States control over former Spanish territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.[10]
During World War I, the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, citing unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann telegram, in which Germany attempted to persuade Mexico to join the war against the United States. Later that year, on December 7, 1917, Congress also declared war on Austria–Hungary, a German ally. The conflict formally ended for the United States with the signing of separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary in 1921.[11]
World War II saw the most formal war declarations by the United States. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Congress declared war on Japan the next day, with near-unanimous approval. In response, Nazi Germany and Italy, led by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, declared war on the United States on December 11, prompting reciprocal declarations by Congress against both nations. In 1942, the United States further declared war on Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania, all Axis-aligned nations.[12] The war concluded in 1945 with the unconditional surrender of Germany and Japan, followed by formal peace treaties in the years after.[13]
Each of these declarations was issued through a Congressional resolution, signed into law by the president, signifying the commencement of hostilities under the authority of the U.S. government. Since World War II, the United States has engaged in numerous military conflicts, but none he been accompanied by a formal declaration of war. Instead, Congress has authorized the use of military force through resolutions, such as those in Korea, Vietnam, and the War on Terror, including conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
War Opponent Declaration Date Votes President Result Senate[14] House[15] War of 1812 United Kingdom United States declaration of war on the United Kingdom June 17, 1812[a] 19–13 79–49 James Madison Treaty of Ghent Mexican–American War Mexico United States declaration of war on Mexico May 13, 1846 40–2 174–14 James K. Polk Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Spanish–American War Spain United States declaration of war on Spain April 25, 1898 90-0 311–6 William McKinley Treaty of Paris (1898) World War I Germany United States declaration of war on Germany (1917) April 6, 1917 82–6 373–50 Woodrow Wilson U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921)[b] World War I Austria-Hungary United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary December 7, 1917 74–0 350–1 Woodrow Wilson U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty (1921)[c] World War II Japan United States declaration of war on Japan December 8, 1941 82–0 388–1 Franklin D. Roosevelt Treaty of San Francisco World War II Germany United States declaration of war on Germany (1941) December 11, 1941 88–0 393–0 Franklin D. Roosevelt German Instrument of Surrender[d] World War II Italy United States declaration of war on Italy December 11, 1941 90–0 399–0 Franklin D. Roosevelt Treaty of Paris (1947) World War II Bulgaria United States declaration of war on Bulgaria June 4, 1942 73–0 357–0 Franklin D. Roosevelt Treaties of Paris (1947) World War II Hungary United States declaration of war on Hungary June 4, 1942 73–0 360–0 Franklin D. Roosevelt Treaties of Paris (1947) World War II Romania United States declaration of war on Romania June 4, 1942 73–0 361–0 Franklin D. Roosevelt Treaties of Paris (1947) Undeclared wars[edit] This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (February 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This section is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this section, if appropriate. Editing help is ailable. (February 2025) Military engagements authorized by Congress[edit]In other instances, the United States has engaged in extended military combat that was authorized by Congress.
War or conflict Opponent(s) Initial authorization Votes President Details of Authorization Result Senate House Quasi-War France An Act further to protect the commerce of the United StatesJuly 9, 1798 18–4 John Adams Adams requested legislation allowing the United States Ny to defend American shipping after repeated attacks by the French Ny during the French Revolutionary Wars.[16] Treaty of Mortefontaine First Barbary War MoroccoTripolitania
"An Act for the Protection of the Commerce and Seamen of the United States, Against the Tripolitan Cruisers", 2 Stat. 129, February 6, 1802[17] Thomas Jefferson President Jefferson requested legislation allowing the U. S. Ny to defend shipping in the Mediterranean Sea from Tripolitanian vessels.[18] War ended 1805 Second Barbary War Algiers "An Act for the protection of the commerce of the United States against the Algerine cruisers", 3 Stat. 230, May 10, 1815[19] James Madison Madison requested a declaration of war against Algiers citing attacks on U.S. shipping in the Mediterranean. Congress rejected the request for a formal war declaration but ratified legislation allowing the U.S. Ny to defend U.S. commerce.[18] War ended 1816 Enforcing 1808 sle trade ban; nal squadron sent to African waters to apprehend illegal sle traders Sle traders "Act in addition to the acts prohibiting the Sle Trade", 3 Stat. 532, 1819 James Monroe 1822 first African-American settlement founded in Liberia, 1823 U.S. Ny stops anti-trafficking patrols Suppression of Piracy Pirates 1819 James Monroe The United States Congress passed legislation allowing the United States Ny to suppress piracy in response to the rise in piracy in Latin America and the Caribbean after the Spanish American wars of independence, which was later permanently codified as Title 33 of the United States Code.[16] Redress for attack on U.S. Ny's USS Water Witch Paraguay 1858.[20] James Buchanan Mexican Revolution United States occupation of Veracruz Mexico H.J.R. 251, 38 Stat. 770April 22, 1914[21] 337–37 Woodrow Wilson Force withdrawn after six months. However, the Joint Resolution was likely used to authorize the Pancho Villa Expedition. In the Senate, "when word reached the Senate that the invasion had gone forward before the use-of-force resolution had been approved, Republicans reacted angrily" saying it was a violation of the Constitution, but eventually after the action had already started, a resolution was passed after the action to "justify" it since Senators did not think it was a declaration of war.[22][23] Russian Civil War Allied intervention in the Russian Civil WarCommune of Estonia Far Eastern Republic Latvia Mongolian People's Party Russia Ukraine
1918[24] Woodrow Wilson Lebanon crisis of 1958 Lebanese Opposition Al-Mourabitoun Lebanese Communist Party Progressive Socialist Party H.J. Res. 117, Public Law 85-7, Joint Resolution "To promote peace and stability in the Middle East", March 9, 1957[25] 72–19 355–61 Dwight D. Eisenhower Eisenhower requested a legislation allowing U.S. economic and military assistance to the Middle East during the Cold War, including the ability to deploy the military in response to threatened Communist takeovers.[26] U.S. forces withdrawn, October 25, 1958 Vietnam WarLaotian Civil War
Cambodian Civil War
Mainland China National United Front of Kampuchea
Khmer Rouge Khmer Rumdo Khmer Việt MinhNorth Korea North Vietnam Pathet Lao South Vietnam
Việt Cộng Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 7, 1964 88–2 416–0 Lyndon B. Johnson Johnson requested authorization for a military deployment to defend South Vietnam and U.S. military forces already stationed there from under SEATO collective security obligations, citing alleged Vietnam People's Ny attacks on United States Ny warcraft including the USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin incident. Congress responded with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.[27] U.S. forces withdrawn under terms of the Paris Peace Accords signed January 27, 1973 Multinational Force in Lebanon Shia militias, Druze militias, Syria S.J.Res. 159Pub. L. 98–119September 29, 1983 54–46 253–156 Ronald W. Reagan Reagan announced the deployment of a small United States Marine Corps contingent of forces for peacekeeping in the Lebanese Civil War, claiming they would supervise the PLO withdrawal from Beirut and provide law enforcement, but not participate in direct combat. After Congress invoked the War Powers Resolution it and the Reagan administration negotiated a resolution allowing the marines to remain in Lebanon for 18 months.[28] Persian Gulf War Ba'athist Iraq H.J.Res. 77January 12, 1991. 52–47 250–183 George H.W. Bush Bush announced the deployment of 330,000 United States Armed Forces troops to Saudi Arabia in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and began diplomatic overtures to form an international coalition to defend the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Congress approved an Authorization for Use of Military Force against Ba'athist Iraq to liberate Kuwait under United Nations Security Council Resolution 678.[29] The United Nations Security Council drew up terms for the cease-fire, April 3, 1991. The administration of George W. Bush later argued that the AUMF never expired during the build-up to the Iraq War. The United States House of Representatives voted to repeal it in 2021.[30] War on Terror Afghanistan Quetta Shura Taliban Haqqani network Mullah Dadullah Frontal-Qaeda
055 Brigade Al-Nusra Front Khorasan group al-Qaeda Emirate in Yemen Aden-Abyan Islamic Army Islamic Jihad of Yemen al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula Ansar al-Sharia al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent Lashkar al-ZilHarakat Ahrar al-Sham al-Islamiyya Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin Islamic Jihad Union Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Jamaat-ul-Ahrar Jundallah Lashkar-e-Islam Lashkar-e-Jhangvi Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi Turkistan Islamic Party Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan
High Council of the Islamic Emirate Fidai Mahaz
al-Itihaad al-Islamiya Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahedeen Hizbul Islam Islamic Courts Union Jabhatul Islamiya Mu'askar Anole Ras Kamboni Brigades
Abu Sayyaf Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters Islamic State Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Maute group Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao
S.J. Res. 23September 14, 2001 98–0 420–1 George W. Bush Bush successfully requested a congressional authorizing the president of the United States to use military force against "those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001" as well as governments which sheltered them such as the First Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. It also allowed the president to use force to prevent future acts of terrorism. Since then the authorization has been invoked in conflicts in 22 countries against the original perpetrator of 9/11 al-Qaeda as well as other organizations such as Al-Shabaab, the Taliban, and the Islamic State. The authorization is also notable in that it delegated war powers related to terrorism from Congress to the president, and allowed the United States to make war against individuals and organizations in addition to sovereign states. The Supreme Court ruled in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld that the authorization enabled the president to detain individuals, including U.S. citizens, as enemy combatants, although it granted detainees to challenge this status in U.S. courts and further ruled in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld that they were protected by laws of war such as the Geneva Conventions and the Uniform Code of Military Justice.[31][32][33][34][35] The Global War on Terror is ongoing. The War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), that was carried out by the United States under the Global War on Terror's general authorization for use of military force, came to an end on August 30, 2021 with the total withdrawal of the American Forces from Afghanistan under the terms of the Doha Peace Agreement signed on February 29, 2020. The U.S. disengagement from Afghanistan resulted in the Fall of Kabul to the Taliban on August 15, 2021 and in a broad re-establishment of the status quo ante bellum. The U.S. backed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed even before the completion of the American withdrawal, and the Taliban victory led to the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Other U.S. military campaigns that are legally based on the Global War on Terror's general authorization for use of military force include the ongoing American-led intervention in the Syrian civil war that was initiated on September 22, 2014 under President Barack Obama's administration. In spite of a significant drawdown of U.S. ground forces in Syria at the direction of President Donald Trump in 2019, the United States retains a residual presence of about 600 military personnel in Syria, and continues to conduct airstrikes against Iranian-supported militias as of 2021.The United States House of Representatives voted to repeal the 2001 AUMF in 2021.[36]
Iraq War[37] Ba'athist Iraq H.J. Res. 114, March 3, 2003 77–23 296–132 George W. Bush During the Iraq disarmament crisis Bush successfully requested an authorization of military force against Iraq citing alleged allegations of violations of United Nations Security Council resolutions including the ceasefire with Kuwait, allegations of illegal weapons of mass destruction programs, allegations of the sheltering of al-Qaeda members in the country. The Bush administration also claimed that the conflict was sanctioned by the 1991 AUMF against Iraq and by the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 designating the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's dictatorship as a goal of U.S. foreign policy.[30][38] Ba'athist Iraqi government abolished April 2003, Saddam Hussein executed.War ended December 15, 2011. Destabilization of Iraq and emergence of ISIL (ISIS) in Iraq region 2014–2017.[39]
During the 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis, President Donald Trump cited the AUMF in its assassination of Qasem Soleimani.[36]
The United States House of Representatives voted to repeal the AUMF in 2021.[36]
Military engagements authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by Congress[edit]In many instances, the United States has engaged in extended military engagements that were authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by appropriations from Congress.[40]
Military engagement Opponent(s) Initial authorization President Result Korean War China North Korea Soviet Union UNSCR 84, 1950 Harry S. Truman Korean Armistice Agreement,[41] 1953 Multinational Force in Lebanon Shia militias, Druze militias, Syria UNSCR 425, 1978UNSCR 426, 1978
Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan U.S. forces withdrew in 1984 Persian Gulf War Iraq UNSCR 678, 1990 George H. W. Bush UNSCR 689, 1991 Bosnian War Republika Srpska UNSCR 770, 1992UNSCR 776, 1992UNSCR 836, 1993 Bill Clinton Reflagged as IFOR in 1995, Reflagged as SFOR in 1996, Completed in 2004 Second Liberian Civil War N/A(Peacekeeping)
UNSCR 1497, 2003 George W. Bush U.S. forces are withdrawn in 2003 after the UNMIL is established. Haitian coup d'état UNSCR 1529, 2004UNSCR 1542, 2004
2004 First Libyan Civil War 2011 military intervention in Libya Operation Odyssey Dawn Operation Unified Protector Libya UNSCR 1973, 2011 Barack Obama Debellation of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, October 31, 2011 Other undeclared wars[edit]On at least 125 occasions, the president has acted without prior express military authorization from Congress.[42] These include instances in which the United States fought in the Philippine–American War from 1898 to 1903, in Nicaragua in 1927, as well as the NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslia in 1999, and the 2018 missile strikes on Syria.
The Indian Wars comprise at least 28 conflicts and engagements. These localized conflicts, with Native Americans, began with European colonists coming to North America, long before the establishment of the United States. For the purpose of this discussion, the Indian Wars are defined as conflicts with the United States of America. They begin as one front in the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and had concluded by 1918. The United States Army still maintains a campaign streamer for Pine Ridge 1890–1891 despite opposition from certain Native American groups.[43]
The American Civil War was not an international conflict under the laws of war, because the Confederate States of America (CSA) was not a government that had been granted full diplomatic recognition as a sovereign nation by other sovereign states[44][45] or by the government of the United States.[46]
The US joined the Israeli war on Iran on the night of June 22, 2025 without a declaration of war or congressional approval.
War Powers Resolution[edit] Main article: War Powers ResolutionOn March 21, 2011, a number of lawmakers expressed concern that the decision of President Barack Obama to order the U.S. military to join in attacks of Libyan air defenses and government forces exceeded his constitutional authority because the decision to authorize the attack was made without congressional permission.[47]
See also[edit] United States portal Cold War Declaration of war by Canada Declaration of war by the United Kingdom Just War Theory Police action Timeline of United States military operations War on Terror War on Drugs References[edit] ^ Elsea & Weed 2014. ^ "DOE II III IV v. BUSH, 03-1266, (March 13, 2003)". FindLaw. Archived from the original on October 29, 2020. Retrieved June 20, 2013. ^ "About Declarations of War by Congress". United States Senate. Retrieved October 19, 2022. ^ Henderson, Phillip G. (2000). The presidency then and now. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8476-9739-7. ^ The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 reported by James Madison : August 17,The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, retrieved Feb 13, 2008 ^ "Petition for a Constitutional Amendment to Hold National Referendums on Declarations of War from Danville, Ohio". The National Archives of the United States. 1938. Retrieved July 29, 2016. ^ Shindler, Michael (March 1, 2018). "War Powers: Return to Congress". RealClearDefense. RealClear Media Group. Retrieved March 2, 2018. ^ "U.S. Senate: Declaration of War with Great Britain, 1812". www.senate.gov. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ "Mexican–American War | Significance, Battles, Results, Timeline, & Facts". www.britannica.com. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ Elsea, Jennifer; Weed, Matthew C. (April 18, 2014). Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications (7 ed.). Washington D.C.: Congressional Research Service. p. 2. OCLC 1097433856. ^ United States Congress (May 13, 1846). "Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications" (PDF). Government of the United States of America. Retrieved August 10, 2006. ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 2–3 ^ "On This Day – 11 December 1941: Germany and Italy Declare War on US". BBC News. December 11, 1941. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ O'Neill, Aaron (July 4, 2024). "Results of votes to declare war in the United States Senate from 1812 to 1942". Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2025. ^ O'Neill, Aaron (July 4, 2024). "Results of votes to declare war in the United States House of Representatives from 1812 to 1942". Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2025. ^ a b Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 5-6 ^ Key Events in the Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Archived June 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, (retrieved on August 10, 2010). ^ a b Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 6-7 ^ Key Events in the Presidency of James Madison Archived June 9, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, (retrieved on August 10, 2010). ^ Expenses – Paraguay Expedition, House of Representatives, 36th Congress, 1st Session, Mis. Doc. No. 86 (May 11, 1860), p. 142 ^ "Joint Resolution justifying the employment by the President of the armed forces of the United States. April 22, 1914" (PDF). Archived from the original on October 18, 2015. Retrieved November 17, 2018. ^ Cyrulik, John M., A Strategic Examination of the Punitive Expedition into Mexico, 1916–1917. Fort Leenworth, KS, 2003. (Master's thesis) ^ Wolfensberger, Don. Congress and Woodrow Wilson's Introductory Forays into Mexico, an Introductory Essay. Congress Project Seminar On Congress and U.S. Military Interventions Abroad. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Monday, May 17, 2004 ^ A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005. ^ Congress' Approval of the Eisenhower Doctrine 1957 ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 8-9 ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 9-10 ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 10-12 ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 12-14 ^ a b "Repealing the 'Zombie' Iraq AUMF(s): A Clear Win for Constitutional Hygiene but Unlikely to End Forever Wars". Lawfare. July 14, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ Elsea & Weed (2014), p. 14-16 ^ "S.J.Res. 23 (107th): Authorization for Use of Military Force". www.govtrack.us. Retrieved May 18, 2020. ^ Sell, Stephanie (December 14, 2021). "The 2001 AUMF: A Comprehensive Look at Where and How It Has Been Used | Costs of War". The Costs of War. Providence, RI: Watson Institute of International and Public Affairs. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ "Hamdi v. Rumsfeld". Oyez. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld". Oyez. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ a b c Kheel, Rebecca (July 13, 2021). "House panel votes to repeal 2001, 2002 war authorizations". The Hill. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ Obama's full speech: Operation Iraqi Freedom is Over, NBC News ^ "Iraq War Resolution of 2002". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved July 24, 2022. ^ Londoño, Ernesto (August 19, 2010). "Operation Iraqi Freedom ends as last combat soldiers lee Baghdad". The Washington Post. ^ United Nations Participation Act, December 20, 1945 Sec. 6, The Commander in Chief and United Nations Charter Article 43: A Case of Irreconcilable Differences?, Rethinking War Powers: Congress, The President, and the United Nations ^ s:Korean Armistice Agreement ^ The President's Constitutional Authority To Conduct Military Operations Against Terrorists and Nations Supporting Them ^ Army Continues to Parade Wounded Knee Battle Streamer Archived May 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, National Congress of American Indians. ^ "Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy, 1861–1865". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on August 28, 2013. ^ McPherson, James M. (2007). This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford University Press US. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-19-531366-6. confederacy recognition. ^ Julius Goebel (1915). The Recognition Policy of the United States. Columbia University. pp. 172–174. The Confederate States did not constitute a new state and they were not independent, hence they were not entitled to treatment by the United States as a foreign state. ^ Obama Attacked for No Congressional Consent on Libya, New York Times. ^ Officially enacted on June 18, 1812 ^ The Treaty of Versailles failed to pass the U.S. Senate. ^ The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) failed to pass the U.S. Senate. ^ There was not a single, formal US-German peace treaty to end World War II, but the United States did officially end its state of war with Germany on October 24, 1951. Further reading[edit] Grotius, Hugo (2004). On The Law Of War And Peace. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4191-3875-1. Edwin Meese; Matthew Spalding; Did F. Forte (2005). The Heritage guide to the Constitution. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-001-3. Kenneth A. Schultz, Tying Hands and Washing Hands: The U.S. Congress and Multilateral Humanitarian Intervention, Ch. 4, pp 105–142, in Daniel Drezner, Ed. Locating the Proper Authorities: The Interaction of Domestic and International Institutions, University of Michigan Press, 2003. External links[edit] The House of Rep, Republican Study Committee of War and Military Authorized Conflicts. 2003. 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